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Mental Health and Cardiovascular Disease

For centuries, the mind–body relationship has been postulated. These findings suggest that depression and anxiety are not simply “in the mind.” They are real illnesses, like any other physical illnesses, and can negatively impact the entire body, including the cardiovascular system. Despite the abundance of investigation and demonstration of a clear relationship between mental health and cardiovascular diseases, patients with coronary disease, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and arrhythmias are rarely assessed for psychological distress or mental illness as a contributor to or resulting from the cardiovascular disorder. Psychological distress and mental distress are terms used to describe a range of symptoms and experiences of a person's internal life that are commonly held to be troubling, confusing, or out of the ordinary. Mental distress has a wider scope than the related term, “mental illness.” Whereas mental illness refers to a specific set of medically defined conditions, a person in mental distress may exhibit some of the symptoms described in psychiatry, such as anxiety, confused emotions, hallucination, anger, and depression without actually being “ill” in a medical sense. A wide range of life situations, including bereavement, stress, loss of a job, sleep deprivation, alcohol or drug use, assault, abuse or accidents, can induce mental distress. This may resolve without further medical intervention, yet may be a trigger for cardiovascular events. The overlap of symptoms of cardiovascular disease such as palpitations, chest tightness, and shortness of breath that occur in healthy persons, including those due to stress, makes it very difficult for physicians and their patients to assign a causal or related role to mental health. Primary care physicians and cardiologists focus on treating symptoms and risk factors, which leaves little time to address feelings and emotions. Further, because of the social stigma that has traditionally existed around mental illness, patients and families may be hesitant to discuss mental health. The purpose of this commentary is to underscore the importance of mental health and its associations with cardiovascular disease.

An Inflammatory Pathway Links Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk to Neural Activity Evoked by the Cognitive Regulation of Emotion

Background Cognitive reappraisal is a form of emotion regulation that alters emotional responding by changing the meaning of emotional stimuli. Reappraisal engages regions of the prefrontal cortex that support multiple functions, including visceral control functions implicated in regulating the immune system. Immune activity plays a role in the preclinical pathophysiology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD), an inflammatory condition that is highly comorbid with affective disorders characterized by problems with emotion regulation. Here, we tested whether prefrontal engagement by reappraisal would be associated with atherosclerotic CVD risk and whether this association would be mediated by inflammatory activity. Methods Community volunteers (n = 157; 30–54 years of age; 80 women) without DSM-IV Axis-1 psychiatric diagnoses or cardiovascular or immune disorders performed a functional neuroimaging task involving the reappraisal of negative emotional stimuli. Carotid artery intima-media thickness and inter-adventitial diameter were measured by ultrasonography and used as markers of preclinical atherosclerosis. Also measured were circulating levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), an inflammatory cytokine linked to CVD risk and prefrontal neural activity. Results Greater reappraisal-related engagement of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex was associated with greater preclinical atherosclerosis and IL-6. Moreover, IL-6 mediated the association of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex engagement with preclinical atherosclerosis. These results were independent of age, sex, race, smoking status, and other known CVD risk factors. Conclusions The cognitive regulation of emotion might relate to CVD risk through a pathway involving the functional interplay between the anterior cingulate region of the prefrontal cortex and inflammatory activity.

Emotion regulation and cardiovascular disease risk.

Abstract In this chapter, we first consider the laboratory and population-based evidence suggesting that emotion regulation may contribute to cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. The literature linking emotion regulation to CVD has considered cardiovascular conditions and the biological markers that are considered indicative of risk of developing CVD in individuals who are too young to have developed actual disease. These include indicators of cardiovascular function and risk that are measured in response to acute stress, generally obtained from laboratory-based studies, predisease conditions and markers of risk. The term cardiovascular disease refers to a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels, and encompasses both coronary heart disease and. cerebrovascular disease, the two cardiovascular disease outcomes most commonly considered in relation to emotion. We review work in these areas, while limiting our discussion to exemplar studies that focus on objectively measured outcomes. Doing so mitigates a common concern about these associations that self-report bias inflates or falsely suggests that emotional factors are causally related to health (i.e., more distressed individuals report more symptoms). Also, we primarily consider prospective studies that examine longitudinal data in which emotion regulation is assessed initially among individuals who are disease-free, prior to development of CVD. These study designs help to mitigate another common concern about these associations: that health conditions actually drive emotions rather than the reverse. We also discuss and apply a developmental perspective to emotion regulation and CVD risk associations, and consider the evidence linking childhood emotion regulation to CVD risk in adulthood. Finally, we close with recommendations for future work. Due to space constraints we do not consider studies of emotion regulation and health risk behaviors (e.g., smoking) in detail, although we note that such behaviors are considered potential pathways through which emotion regulation may influence CVD, and recommend these as areas for future research. Also, while we focus on studies of emotion regulation in relation to CVD etiology (i.e., development of disease), we recognize that emotion regulation is also likely related to CVD progression and survival. Finally, it is important to note that while the effects of emotion regulation are likely involved in the pathophysiology of many diseases, the evidence to date is strongest for CVD and, as such, is reviewed specifically in this chapter. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

Transcendental meditation for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease

Abstract Background: A major determinant in cardiovascular disease (CVD) is stress. As transcendental meditation (TM) is thought to help in lowering negative stress indicators, it may be a beneficial strategy for the primary prevention of CVD. Objectives: To determine the effectiveness of TM for the primary prevention of CVD. Search methods: We searched the following electronic databases: the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (2013, Issue 10); MEDLINE (Ovid) (1946 to week three November 2013); EMBASE Classic and EMBASE (Ovid) (1947 to week 48 2013); ISI Web of Science (1970 to 28 November 2013); and Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE) and Health Technology Assessment Database and Health Economics Evaluations Database (November 2013). We also searched the Allied and complementary Medicine Database (AMED) (inception to January 2014) and IndMed (inception to January 2014). We handsearched trial registers and reference lists of reviews and articles and contacted experts in the field. We applied no language restrictions. Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of at least three months' duration involving healthy adults or adults at high risk of CVD. Trials examined TM only and the comparison group was no intervention or minimal intervention. We excluded trials that involved multi-factorial interventions. Outcomes of interest were clinical CVD events (cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality and non-fatal events) and major CVD risk factors (e.g. blood pressure and blood lipids, occurrence of type 2 diabetes, quality of life, adverse events and costs). Data collection and analysis: Two authors independently selected trials for inclusion, extracted data and assessed the risk of bias. Main results: We identified four trials (four papers) (430 participants) for inclusion in this review. We identified no ongoing studies. The included trials were small, short term (three months) and at risk of bias. In all studies, TM was practised for 15 to 20 minutes twice a day.None of the included studies reported all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality or non-fatal endpoints as trials were short term, but one study reported survival rate three years after the trial was completed. In view of the considerable statistical heterogeneity between the results of the studies for the only outcomes reported, systolic blood pressure (I(2) = 72%) and diastolic blood pressure (I(2) = 66%), we decided not to undertake a meta-analysis. None of the four trials reported blood lipids, occurrence of type 2 diabetes, adverse events, costs or quality of life. Authors' conclusions: Currently, there are few trials with limited outcomes examining the effectiveness of TM for the primary prevention of CVD. Due to the limited evidence to date, we could draw no conclusions as to the effectiveness of TM for the primary prevention of CVD. There was considerable heterogeneity between trials and the included studies were small, short term and at overall serious risk of bias. More and larger long-term, high-quality trials are needed.

The impact of transcendental meditation on depressive symptoms and blood pressure in adults with cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract Background: Transcendental Meditation (TM) as a stress management technique may offer an adjunctive strategy to improve health and well-being in adults with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Objectives: To examine the efficacy of TM to improve aspects of cardiovascular health and psychological functioning in adults with CVD. Method: Studies (a) evaluating TM in adults with hypertension or CVD and (b) assessing a physiological or psychological outcome were retrieved and meta-analyzed. Weighted mean effect sizes were computed to assess between- and within-group changes. Results: Nine studies met inclusion criteria (N = 851; mean age = 60 ± 8 years; 47% women). Between-group analyses revealed no differences between TM and control groups. However, within-group (i.e., pre- to post-intervention) analyses revealed reductions in systolic (d+ = 0.31) and diastolic (d+ = 0.53) blood pressure (BP) for the TM group. There were no changes in depressive symptoms for TM or control participants. Conclusions: TM was associated with within-group (but not between-groups) improvements in BP. Continued research using randomized controlled trials with larger samples, and measuring psychophysiological outcomes at longer follow-up intervals is recommended.

Greater ability to express positive emotion is associated with lower projected cardiovascular disease risk

Abstract Positive emotion is associated with lower cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, yet some mechanisms remain unclear. One potential pathway is via emotional competencies/skills. The present study tests whether the ability to facially express positive emotion is associated with CVD risk scores, while controlling for potential confounds and testing for sex moderation. Eighty-two men and women underwent blood draws before completing self-report assessments and a performance test of expressive skill. Positive expressions were scored for degree of 'happiness' using expression coding software. CVD risk scores were calculated using established algorithms based on biological, demographic, and behavioral risk factors. Linear regressions revealed a main effect for skill, with skill in expressing positive emotion associated with lower CVD risk scores. Analyses also revealed a sex-by-skill interaction whereby links between expressive skill and CVD risk scores were stronger among men. Objective tests of expressive skill have methodological advantages, appear to have links to physical health, and offer a novel avenue for research and intervention.

Attitudes and cardiovascular disease

Abstract Psychological attitudes are prospectively related to cardiovascular disease (CVD), but a causal relationship has not been demonstrated. Trait optimism/pessimism (positive or negative future expectation, respectively), and cynical hostility (mistrust of people), are attitudes with features of personality traits. These attitudes may affect CVD risk in several ways, by influencing an individual's (1) adoption of health behaviors, (2) maladaptive stress responding resulting in direct alteration of physiology (i.e., autonomic dysfunction, thrombosis, arrhythmias), (3) development of traditional CVD risk factors, and (4) lack of adherence to therapy in both primary and secondary prevention. More adaptive attitudes may favorably influence CVD risk at each of these critical junctures. The genetic and environmental (i.e., social, economic, racial/ethnic) determinants of attitudes have not been extensively studied. In addition, it is important to understand how some of these environmental determinants may also moderate the association between attitudes and CVD. Clinical trials to modify attitudes for CVD risk reduction (either by reducing negative attitudes or by increasing positive attitudes) are difficult to conduct, but are necessary to determine whether attitudes can indeed be modified, and if, so, to quantify any CVD-related benefits. To address these questions we present a broad, multidisciplinary research agenda utilizing mixed methods and integrating principles of epidemiology, genetics, psychophysiology, and behavioral medicine over the lifecourse (first figure). This overview focuses on attitudes and CVD, but has broader implications for understanding how psychological factors relate to chronic diseases of adulthood.

Emotional states and future risk of venous thromboembolism: the Tromsø Study

Abstract Emotional states of depression and loneliness are reported to be associated with higher risk and optimism with lower risk of arterial cardiovascular disease (CVD) and death. The relation between emotional states and risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) has not been explored previously. We aimed to investigate the associations between self-reported emotional states and risk of incident VTE in a population-based, prospective study. The frequency of feeling depressed, lonely and happy/optimistic were registered by self-administered questionnaires, along with major co-morbidities and lifestyle habits, in 25,964 subjects aged 25-96 years, enrolled in the Tromsø Study in 1994-1995. Incident VTE-events were registered from the date of inclusion until September 1, 2007. There were 440 incident VTE-events during a median of 12.4 years of follow-up. Subjects who often felt depressed had 1.6-fold (95% CI:1.02-2.50) higher risk of VTE compared to those not depressed in analyses adjusted for other risk factors (age, sex , body mass index, oestrogens), lifestyle (smoking, alcohol consumption, educational level) and co-morbidities (diabetes, CVD, and cancer). Often feeling lonely was not associated with VTE. However, the incidence rate of VTE in subjects who concurrently felt often lonely and depressed was higher than for depression alone (age-and sex-adjusted incidence rate: 3.27 vs. 2.21). Oppositely, subjects who often felt happy/optimistic had 40% reduced risk of VTE (HR 0.60, 95% CI: 0.41-0.87). Our findings suggest that self-reported emotional states are associated with risk of VTE. Depressive feelings were associated with increased risk, while happiness/optimism was associated with reduced risk of VTE.

Real Men Don't Cry: Skill Expressing Discrete Emotions Differentially Predicts Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Men and Women

Abstract Background: Expressing emotions effectively is central to social functioning and has links to health and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Previous work has linked the ability to smile to lower CVD risk in men but has not studied other expressions or considered the context of these skills. Purpose: To test whether the ability to express fear, anger, sadness, happiness, and disgust cross-sectionally predict CVD risk in both genders and whether links are moderated by the ability to decode others' emotional signals. Methods: A community sample of 125 men and women (30-75 years) provided trait emotion data before a laboratory visit where blood was drawn and performance-based assessments of the ability to signal and decode emotions were administered. Expressive accuracy was scored using FaceReader software. Projected CVD risk was calculated using Framingham, a New Zealand (NZ) specific, and Atherosclerosis CVD (ASCVD) risk algorithms. Results: Accuracy expressing happiness predicted lower projected risk, whereas greater accuracy expressing fear and sadness predicted higher risk. Gender frequently moderated these links; greater accuracy expressing happiness predicted lower risk in men but not women. Conversely, greater accuracy expressing fear predicted higher risk in men, whereas greater accuracy expressing sadness predicted lower risk in women but, again, higher risk in men. The ability to accurately decode others' emotions moderated some links. Conclusions: The ability to signal emotion has complex links to health parameters. The ability to flexibly regulate expressions in accordance with gender norms may be one useful way of thinking about adaptive expressive regulation.

Ancient roots - Modern applications: Mindfulness as a novel intervention for cardiovascular disease

Abstract Cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been associated with chronic psychological stress. Unremittent psychological stress causes dysregulation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis, which collectively promotes inflammation, atherosclerosis, and subsequent CVD risk. Stress reduction techniques, such as mindfulness meditation, have been shown to improve some markers of HPA and SNS function at rest and in response to acute stressors, suggesting that such techniques, over time, may be cardioprotective. Therefore, it may be hypothesized that eight weeks of daily mindfulness meditation, compared to a non-mindful relaxation control, may provide a novel strategy to buffer stress responses in healthy and at-risk populations, thereby lowering the risk of chronic psychological stress and the associated CVD risk as measured by arterial stiffness. The current paper outlines methodological considerations for testing this hypothesis, including appropriate acute stressors, and measurement of SNS, HPA axis and cardiovascular function. If the hypothesis is correct, mindfulness meditation would complement healthy lifestyle techniques such as exercise and diet to prevent CVD risk.

Anger, depression and anxiety associated with endothelial function in childhood and adolescence

Abstract Objective Psychosocial adversity is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) in adults. The authors assessed associations of reactive hyperaemia peripheral arterial tonometry (RH-PAT), a measure of endothelial function predictive of CVD, with self-assessed psychological health among school children. Methods A total of 248 healthy school children (mean (SD) age 14.0 (1.0); 136 girls and 112 boys) underwent RH-PAT testing. They completed the Beck Youth Inventories (BYI) of emotional and social impairment scales, which is used to screen for depression, anxiety, anger and disruptive behaviour. Results No sex differences were observed for the RH-PAT score. Statistically significant differences were observed for the BYI scores; girls had higher scores for depression, anger and anxiety. Among the girls, there were statistically significant associations between lower RH-PAT scores and higher scores for anger (B coefficient=−0.100, p=0.040), depression (−0.108, p=0.009) and anxiety (−0.138, p=0.039) after adjustment for age. Among the boys, disruptive behaviour was associated with higher RH-PAT scores (0.09, p=0.006). Conclusions The girls have higher levels of self-assessed anger; depression and anxiety compared with the boys, and these characteristics are associated with lower RH-PAT scores, indicating attenuated endothelial function. Among the boys, disruptive behaviour was associated with better endothelial function. Although psychological ill-health is associated with impaired endothelial function and CVD among adults, such processes may also be relevant to children. Psychosocial adversity in childhood might be a risk factor for subsequent CVD.

The heart's content: the association between positive psychological well-being and cardiovascular health

Abstract This review investigates the association between positive psychological well-being (PPWB) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). We also consider the mechanisms by which PPWB may be linked with CVD, focusing on the health behaviors (e.g., smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, sleep quality and quantity, and food consumption) and biological functions (e.g., cardiovascular, inflammatory, and metabolic processes) that are most relevant for cardiovascular health. Because PPWB is a broad concept, not all aspects of PPWB may be associated with cardiovascular health. Thus, we distinguish between eudaimonic well-being, hedonic well-being, optimism, and other measures of well-being when reviewing the literature. Findings suggest that PPWB protects consistently against CVD, independently of traditional risk factors and ill-being. Specifically, optimism is most robustly associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular events. In general, PPWB is also positively associated with restorative health behaviors and biological function and inversely associated with deteriorative health behaviors and biological function. Cardiovascular health is more consistently associated with optimism and hedonic well-being than with eudaimonic well-being, although this could be due in part to more limited evidence being available concerning eudaimonic well-being. Some similarities were also evident across different measures of PPWB, which is likely due to measurement overlap. A theoretical context for this research is provided, and suggestions for future research are given, including the need for additional prospective investigations and research that includes multiple constructs of psychological well-being and ill-being.

Hostility, Anger Control, and Anger Expression as Predictors of Cardiovascular Disease

Abstract Objective: To examine in a prospective setting whether different hostility measures, including Cynical Distrust, Trait Anger, Anger Out, Anger In, and Anger Control, are related to cardiovascular disease (CVD) and ischemic heart disease (IHD). Methods: Participants comprised 25- to 74-year-old men (n = 3850) and women (n = 4083), followed up for 10 to 15 years. Trait Anger, Anger Out, Anger In, and Anger Control were assessed with the Spielberger State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory and Cynical Hostility with the Cynical Distrust Scale. Incident CVD and IHD were derived from hospital records/death certificates. Subjects with a history of CVD or IHD at baseline were excluded. Results: Subjects in the lowest Anger Control tertile had a higher risk of first nonfatal and fatal CVD incidence (relative risk [RR], 1.35; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.06-1.73) than subjects in the highest tertile after adjustment for age, gender, education, marital status, smoking, body mass index, blood pressure, cholesterol, alcohol consumption, and depressive symptoms. Higher Cynical Distrust scores predicted nonfatal and fatal CVD (RR, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.09-1.56) and IHD (RR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.08-1.74) events after adjustment for age, but these associations disappeared after further adjustment for gender, education, and marital status. Other hostility measures, i.e., Trait Anger, Anger Out, or Anger In, were not related to CVD or IHD outcomes. Conclusions: This is the first study to show that compared with four other hostility dimensions, low Anger Control predicts CVD events. Further studies should examine whether Anger Control is specific to anger or reflects more general psychosocial factors.

The association of depression at any time to the risk of death following coronary artery disease diagnosis

Abstract Aims Depression is a risk factor for cardiovascular (CV) diseases, incident CV events, and mortality. Among individuals who experience a CV diagnosis or event, whether a subsequent diagnosis of depression is associated with a greater risk of mortality is unknown. Among patients with existing coronary artery disease (CAD), this study evaluated the association of a subsequent depression diagnosis with all-cause mortality. Methods and results Patients (N = 24 137) who had angiographically determined CAD (stenosis ≥70%) were studied. Depression after CAD diagnosis was determined by International Classification of Diseases codes and evaluated as a time-varying covariate predicting mortality in multivariable Cox hazard regression models to control for patients’ differing lengths of time between CAD diagnosis and depression diagnosis. A total of 3646 (15%) had a depression diagnosis during follow-up. Compared with those without depression, these patients were significantly younger (64 ± 12 vs. 65 ± 12 years), more often female (37% vs. 24%), diabetic (40% vs. 30%), previously diagnosed with depression (26% vs. 5%), and less likely to present with an myocardial infarction (MI) (28% vs. 36%). Death (mean follow-up: 9.7 ± 6.1 years) occurred in 40% of patients (depression: 50% vs. no depression: 38%, P < 0.0001). After adjustment, post-CAD depression was the strongest predictor of death (HR = 2.00, P < 0.0001). This association persisted among subgroups with no prior depression diagnosis (HR = 2.00, P < 0.0001) and by angiography indication: stable angina (HR = 1.84, P < 0.0001), unstable angina (HR = 2.25, P < 0.0001), and MI (HR = 2.09, P < 0.0001). Conclusion A depression diagnosis at any time following CAD diagnosis was associated with a two-fold higher risk of death.