Functional Groups
Methyl
affects gene expression when on DNA or on proteins bound to DNA
Phosphate
contributes positive charge
Sulfhydryl
two -sh groups can react forming a "cross-link that help stabilize protein structure
Amino Group
acts as a base
Carboxyl
covalent bond between O-H is very polar
acts as an acid
Carbonyl
sugars w/ aldehydes (aldoses)
sugars w/ ketone groups (ketoses)
Hydroxyl
usually ends with -ol
forms H bonds with H2O
polar because of electronegative oxygen
Organic Compounds
Opposite Charges can form Salts
Ex: NaCl
How Salts dissolve in water
hydration shell
Phospholipid Bilayer
Enantionmers
Mirror Images
Geometric
Different Spacial Arrangements
Stutural
Different Covalent Arrangements
Hydrocarbons
Hydrogen Bonding
Water Molecules
Properties
Solvent of Life
Denser as solid than
Contract when cooled
Expand when Heated
High Heat of Vaporization
High Humidity prevents Evaporation
High Specific Heat
Unit 1
Isomers
compounds with same # of atoms of same elements but different structures and different properties
Enantiomers
R isomer
L isomer
Cis-trans
cabons that have covalent bonds to the same atoms but differ in spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds
trans isomer
2 x's on opposite sides
cis isomer
2 x's on same side
Structural
Carbon skeletons
Presence of Rings
Double bond position
Branching
Branched
Unbranched
Length
Genomics and Proteomics
The more closely two species are related evolutionarily, the more similar their DNA sequences are
DNA sequence data confirm models of evolution based on fossils and anatomical evidence
Recent technological advances in DNA sequencing have given rise to:
Proteomics
A similar approach for large sets of proteins
Genomics
An approach that analyzes large sets of genes or whole genomes
Biofinformatics
The use of computational tools and computer software to analyze these large data sets
Genomes and proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications
Macromolecules
Nucleic acids
Examples
RNA
Various functions in gene expression, including carrying instructions from DNA to ribosomes
Usually single stranded
Nitrogenous bases = C, G, A, U
Sugar = ribose
Stores hereditary information
Consists of:
Phosphate group
Usually double-stranded
Sugar = deoxyribose
Nitrogenous bases = C, G, A, T
Consists of a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous base
Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information
Proteins
Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions
Examples of proteins
Structural proteins
Provide structural support
Motor proteins
Function in cell movement
Receptor proteins
Receive signals from outside cell
Coordinate organismal responses
Transport proteins
Transport substances
Storage proteins
Store amino acids
Defensive proteins
Protect against disease
Enzymes
Catalyze chemical reactions
Consist of R groups (a type of amino acid monomer)
There are 20 types
Lipids
Components of lipids
Steroids
Signaling molecules that travel through the body (hormones)
Component of cell membranes (cholesterol)
Consist of a steroid backbone
Four fused rings with attached chemical groups
Phospholipids
Are lipid bilayers of membranes
Glycerol + phosphate group + two fatty acids
Consist of a phosphate head and 2 fatty acids
Glycerol
Examples of glycerol
Triacylglycerols
(Fats or oils) -> glycerol + three fatty acids
Important sources of energy
Consists of 3 fatty acids
Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
Carbohydrates
Examples of carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Chitin (animals and fungi)
Strengthens exoskeletons and fungal cell walls
Glycogen (animals)
Starch (plants)
Stores glucose for energy
Cellulose (plants)
Strengthens plant cell walls
Disaccharides
Serve as fuel and are carbon sources that can be converted to other molecules or combined into polymers
Sucrose
Lactose
Monosaccharides
Fructose
Glucose
Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material
Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
no anchorage dependance
each 3 carbon has a phosphate attached to it
Large carbohydrates (polysaccharides), proteins, and nucleic acids are polymers, which are chains of monomers
Polymers can disassemble by the reverse process, which is hydrolysis
Monomers form larger molecules by dehydration reactions, in which water molecules are released
The components of lipids vary
Chemical bonding
Ionic
Transfer of Electrons
cation
Positive Charge
anion
Negative Charge
Metallic
Covalent
Nonpolar
Similar Electronegativies
Van Der Waals Interactions
Separation of charges
Hydrophobic Interactions
Cage Away from Water
Hydrophobic Tails
Polar
Hydrophillic
Hydrophilic Heads
Different Electronegativities
Dipole Dipole Interactions
Partial positive
Paritial negative
Unit 4: Photosynthesis
Begins with Glucose
fermentation occurs without oxygen
enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates glucose phosphoglucoisomerase converts glucose 6-phosphate into isomer
Fermentation occurs when no oxygen is present
Glycolysis
2 molecules of pyruvate per glucose and 4 ATP, Net 2 ATP are produced
2 NAD+ are reduced to NADH with the addition of hydrogen
each 3 carbon has a phosphate atachted to it
Uses 2 ATP to break up glucose into 2- 3 carbon chains
hit by photon of light that energy is transferred and funneled to the reaction center
Signal sequence is recognized by signal recognition protein (SRP)
phosphorlation occurs initating chain of events promoting transcrption
Regulators include CDKs
Checkpoints include G1/S, G2/M, and M
1st stage of Cellular Respiration with oxygen
Store energy (Calvin cycle) Part 2
Use energy (respiration)
Oxidative phosphorylation
Citric acid cycle
glycolysis
Act 3:
and glucoses will quickly be assembled into starch
TWO g3ps are needed to make 1 glucose(which was released in act 2)
another carbon from carbon dioxide attaches again, attaches to the carbon ribulose bisphosphate to make unstable 6 carbon intermediate and so on and so forth
basically be rearranged with the help of ATP to form a 5 carbon sugar and becomes a starting point ones again
5 g3p CONTINUES IN THE CYCLE
ADP and NADP will return to the light reactions and get recharged
NADPH has been oxidized to form NADP (lost electrons)
ATP becomes ADP
End of act 2, we have 6 G3P, one will be released to make glucose ultimately and FIVE will continue
need 3 more atp
G3P is half a glucose, so far we have spent 6 atp and 6 nadph
end of 2nd act makes the product
ATP is used to phosphorylate the other side of the 3 carbon molecule, and 3 carbon molecule is reduced by NADPH to form one molecule of G3P
Act 1:
co2 enters the cycle diffused into the leaf through the stomata and into the chloroplast, and its carbon is snapped onto a pre-existing 5 carbon carboyhdate by the enzyme rubisco
this makes a highly unstable 6 carbon molecule and breaks down immediately due to its 2 phosphate groups
CO2 fixation
carbon fixing reactions are light independent
we need a source of carbon, so we use co2
products of the light reactions except of o2 are reactants in calvin cycle
energy in ATP and NADPH is transferred into sugar, a more stable storage form
Starts on photosystem II in the process: Light Reactions: Part I
Chemiosmosis
Mitochondria and Chloroplast Differences in Chemiosmosis
where electrons are coming from that moved down from ETC and established the proton gradient
Respiration
the high energy electrons are coming from food as we break down like glucose that has a high PE which we use to make ATP
Photosynthesis
source of the electrons - the excited energy, higher energy state, is coming from chlorophyll molecules as photon hits a cholorphyll molecule that excites a electron and that energy is what is driving the generation of ATP
proton movement in both organelles.
Chloroplasts
protons pumped in the thylakoid space, (stacks)
pump protons pump in the inner membrane gradient
Mitochondria and Chloroplast similarities in Chemiosmosis
ATP is generated in the compartment where its needed
ATP synthase uses proton motive force to phosphorylate ADP to make ATP
both respiration and photosynthesis, rely on a proton gradient that is generated by the ETC as electrons move down their electron transport chain
both cases, there is inherent energy and electron transport chain pumping protons across the membrane
RESULT: HIGH PROTON CONCENTRATION BUILDING UP IN THE THYLAKOID SPACE
pumping of protons from the stroms to the thylakoid space using the energy inherent in the ETC
protons are released from the thylakoid space
atp synthases allows protons to move down their concentration gradient to produce ATP from ADP
can be used to do work
using proton motive force to generate atp
Light reactions:
this is called NON- CYCLIC FLOW
olar energy is used to make ATP and NADP not for cellular work but for calvin cycle
Act3:
this electron goes to a shorter ETC, then electron carrier NADP grabs the electron and becomes NADPH
electron in that reaction center bounces to a higher state
Photosystem transfers electrons, reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Act 2:
proton gradient is used to make ATP
primary e acceptor passes it to ETC, uses energy to move protons against concentration gradient to move it into the thylakoid space
Energy is transferred through Electron Transport Chain to Photosystem I
Act 1 :
protons (from water) are released to thylakoid space (lowering pH) , used to drive the synthesis of ATP
O2 IS RELEASED AS A BY-PRODUCT
Chlorophylls lost electron is REPLACED BY TAKING AN ELECTRON FROM WATER “splitting water”
H2O split into oxygen and hydrogen
Energy is captured by Photosystem II
Photosystem
Reaction center is where the electron will be excited and ultimately lost from the chrolophyll, primary electron acceptor grabs it chlorophyll loses it
Photon hits the photosystem and hits the cholorphyll molecules and ultimately funneled by the reaction center (special chlorophyll molecules)
a ray of satellite dishes that tries to gather light
collection of proteins and pigment molecules
Retrieve energy (light reactions)
-not make sugars directly
NADPH & ATP is used to drive calvin cycle
light reactions gather energy and transfer it to electron carriers (NADPH is an electron carrier) or use energy to make ATP
harvest energy
UNIT 2: DNA Replication, Transcription, Translation
Translocation
The vesicle is sent to lysosomes, extracellular matrix, plasma membrane
The golgi further modifies the protein and packages it
The protein is transported to golgi
The protein is modified to glycoprotein by chaperones
The protein is now in the lumen of ER
Signal sequence is reached for signal peptidase to make a cut
Translation is done
Free ribosome bound
Endomembrane system
ER- GOLGI- PLASMA MEMBRANE OR GOES BACK TO THE ER
2 Membranes
Chloroplast
Mutations
Nonsense
Early stop codon that stops translation
Missense
Change in Amino Acid
1 or 2 Nucleotides
silent
- no change in amino acid
1 nucleotide change
happens in nucleotides of DNA
DNA Translation
Steps:
-translation is finished
-hydrolysis reaction breaks the ribosomal complex
-release factor attaches to stop codon on A site
-the mRNA shifts in codon to P site then E
-tRNA comes into A site
release factor comes into this site
- this happens in P site
- large ribosomal unit attaches to the complex
- tRNA attaches to the codon
- scans for AUG codon
small ribosomal subunit attaches
Amino acid
synthases
connects the tRNA to the correct amino acid, reads it first inorder to use the enzyme
another trna comes in and puts another anticodon at the a site
Initation
Small subunit ribosome
Large subunit ribosome attaches to the TRNA
Trna comes with anticodon, happens at P site
scans where it starts
DNA transcription
Splicesosomes
RNA splicing occurs before the cap is added
cuts out the introns
Poly A polymerase
brings a bunch of As to stabilize
Ribonuclease
cuts the sequence at the poly A
Poly A
signals the nuclease to make a cut at the mRNA strand
Promoter
TATA box
+1 sequence -
RNA pol II binds because it needs transcription factor to bind
contains transcription factor which contains protein
found in promoter
located upstream
happens downstream
uses the template strand
DNA Replication
DNA III - extends and proofreads
In pro - 1 ORI
In euk- 2 ORI
e use both strands
B cells
carries golgi bodies
secrete antibodies
PCR
Elongation
dnTP
energy used in PCR TO KEEP ELONGATION MOVING
Tag polymerase (from archea) elongate synthetic DNA primers
Temp is slightly increased
Annealing
DNA primers are added to parent strands through hydrogen bonds
Temperature is reduced
Both strands separate
Hydrogen bond is broken
Temp is increased so that hydrogen bonds can break and strands can separate
Denaturation
artificial
Makes a lot of dna
polymerase chain reaction, all happens in the test tube!
Messelson and Stahl
semi-conservative
Discovered that DNA was a double helix
Made 3D replica of the dna
Chargraff’s Rule
Watson and Crick
Always have to be 50% 50%. A& C= 50%... G&T= 50%
15% A, 15% T….. 35% G, 35% C
Number of purines = number of pyramidines
Pyramidines - C and T
PURE AS GOLD
Hershey and Chase
RNA is not genetic material because it is unstable
this is due to the OH group in the ribosugar
Used radioactive phosphorus and sulfur
Mckay & Mcleoud (M&M)
didn’t prove anything
test tube
reinforced the transforming principle
redid griffith’s 4th trial
Griffith
Four trials
There was a transforming principle!
Heat S & R- dead rat
Heat S - alive
R- alive rat
S- dead rat
Streptococcus pneumonia
Looking for a vaccine for pnemonia
Bacteriologist
3 domains of life:
Eukarya
ECM
collagen
-peripheral proteins - sodium, potassium ion channels
plasma membrane
Junctions
Desmosomes
Signaling
Intermediate filaments found in here
Selected passage
Gap/ Plasmodesmata
Allows everything to pass through
Tight
Rat = poison by opening the gap junctions
Intestines and skin
No passage of the free nucleus
Cytoskeleton
Intermediate filaments
Progeria
fibers
Structure and maintenance, stability
Nuclear lamina, keratin
Microtubules
Found in flagella
Motor protein
kinesin
cell division
structure
monomer: tubulin
Beta
Alpha
Microfilaments
Actin Monomer
movement
muscle contraction
Amoeba
Transport/motor protein
myosin
Ribosomes
Translation
rRNA and proteins
Two components
Free bound
Golgi
Chaperones
helps in modification and folding
2nd tag of protein
Modification
Synthesis
Sends them out
Helps package proteins
Smooth ER
Detoxification
Iipid synthesis
Rough ER
Glycoproteins
sugars in the rough ER
Protein modifications
Nucleus
Double membrane
Mitochondria
Cristae
where atp and cellular respiration happens
Has a double membrane
DNA and protein
Cellular respiration
Produces ATP
Vacuoles
Central vacuole
found in plants, rigid
food vacuole (vesicle)
carries things for transportation
contractile vacuoles
prevents lysine when cell self-destructs
rigid, moving excess water out of the cell
Peroxisomes
Form water
Produce Hydrogen Peroxide to form water! H2O2 to H2O
pH acidic
Lysosomes
has hydrolase
phagocytosis
autophagy
recycles organelles or any cell material
engulfs outside materials
lysozyme
break down macromolecules
which helps engulfs and digest bacteria
DNA
Nuclelous
Chromatid in nucleus
Has lamina
helps with stability and structure of the nucleus
intermediate filament,
Has envelope
Has nucleus- double membrane
Bacteria
Has UNBRANCHED lipids, its saturated, because its rigid
Coupled DNA rep and transcription
No introns
Flagellum
Cilia - hairlike projections of the exterior of the bacteria, for movement
Pili- attachment for reproduction
chromatin/somes
Plasmid
No nucleus
Petidoglycan - sugar coated cell wall
Capsule
Archaea
Has introns
thermophiles
methanophiles
halophiles
Miller Urey
Hydrocarbons, hydrogen cyanide, amino acids
Ribozyme oldest organelle
contains RNA and protein
Tried to recreate the environment
redid experiment of Oparin Harding
Oparin Harding theory
Volcanic eruption was the source of molecules
Cell Cycle (Division)
Somatic cells
Normally in G0 phase
2N diploid cells (one from dad one from mom)
Body cells
have autosome (NON SEX) chromosome -
Regulators of Cell Division
Tumor Suppressor Genes
P-53
If p-53 is mutated, there will be continuous cell division
When there is a thymine dimer, p-53 is needed
Makes a protein that hurts gene expression
Transcription factor
Pauses cell cycle
Suppresses cell division/ cycle
Proto Oncogenes
When mutated or muted can cause cancer - become oncogenes
Are normal cancer genes
Cancer cells
Oncogenes
Cancer causing genes
A disease of signaling cycle
Forms tumor on top of each layer
They establish their anchor in different plane
They propagate mutations
Doesnt exhibit any growth inhibitions
Density dependent inhibitor
Forms single layer
Would not grown when mixed cut in environment
Cyclins
They form CDK-cyclin complex
cyclin dependent kinases ___ to phosphorlyze
Germ Cells
Produce haploid cells (1N)
Produce gametes
Karyotypes
can be used to diagnose diseases
Down syndrome
Chromosomes 21 has 3 chromosomes instead of 2
Cell Cycle (Mitosis)
checkpoints G1/G2/M
Failure of CDKs cause cancer
If Ras is hyperactive a signal will continually be
expressed, never turning off
Tumor suppressor P.53 is mutated it can not do its job
oncogenes cause cancer
no density dependent inhibitioln
accumulation of mutants
disrupt and inavde issues
Meiosis
Meiosis II: similar to mitosis (produces 4 cells)
Telophase II
Cytoplasm is divided into 2 haploid cells (gametes) -- cytokinesis
Nuclear membrane returns
Anaphase II
Microtubles shorten and ends of cells are aligned
Sister chromatids are pulled apart
Metaphase II
Random alignment
Chromosomes align at equator of cell
Prophase II
No synapses or recombination
Daughter cells have one copy of each hydrolysis chromosomes
Centrosomes appear and forms kinetochores
Chromosomes condense and nuclear envelope breaks down
Gametes are formed through meiosis
Meiosis 1 (produces 2 diploid cells)
Telophase 1
Nuclear membrane reappears
Cell divides into 2 daughter cells
Anaphase 1
Sister chromatids are attached at centromere
To 2 poles of the cell
Homolysis chromosomes separate and migrate
Metaphase 1
Different combinations
Align randomly
Synapse chromosomes align at the equator
Prophase 1
Two centrosomes are present with microtubules -- kinetochores
Nuclear membrane begins to break down
No two siblings aside from twin are genetically identical
Sister chromatids from each chromosomes are no longer identical
Chromosome material is exchanged by the 2 parts of sister chromatids
Each pair of homolysis chromosomes undergoes synapses to form a complex
Duplicated sister chromatids join together at the centromere
DNA condenses to form chromosomes
2 unique daughter cells that have the amount of DNA as parent germline cells
DNA in the germ cells are duplicated before meiosis begin
Cells are going through the interphase
Produces gametes
1 copy of each chromosome
Haploid cells
2 copies of each chromosome in diploid organelles
Germ line cells produce gametes
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Organelles are replicated
Cleavage furrow is formed
Cell is divided in nearly equal cells
Cell is composed by a contractile ring form microfilament
telophase
Chromosomes uncoil and become uncondensed
Spindle fibers are broken up
Nuclear membrane reappear and 2 sets of chromosomes
anaphase
Sister chromatids separate and move to the ends of the cell
Chromosome separate
The cell becomes bigger
Metaphase
Chromosome align at the center of cell
Sister chromatids are ready to separate
Prometaphase
Kinetochore attaches to chromosomes in centromeres
Nuclear envelope is degraded
microtubules appear and attaches to kinetchore
prophase
Microtubules appears from centrosomes in animals
Chromosome structure appears
DNA condenses
Nucleolus disappear
Condensation of chromosome
G2
more growth
S
most of the life of the cell is spend here (interphase)
G1
cell finishes growing
DNA is replicated
Synthesis phase
Cell grows nearly to its full size
UNIT 3: Cell Membrane
Checkpoints include G1/S, G2/M, and M
Regulators include CDKs
phosphorlation occurs initiating chain of events promoting transcription
Cells
No anchorage dependence
No density-dependent inhibition
causes uncontrolled cell growth
Regulation of Gene Expression
Prokaryotic Gene Expression
Operons
Operon is turned off
Repressor protein binds to operon
Binds to repressor protein
Tryptophan functions as a corepressor
Operon is on when there is no tryp
Operon is off when there is tryp
Tryptophan is synthesized
When lactose is available
No presence of glucose
When there is high levels of camp
Contribute activator proetin (CAP) binds to operator
Repressor is suppressed with allolactose
The Lac Operon
Adds acetyl groups to lactose to make it easier for B GALACTIDASE to break down lactose
make transacetylase
Gene Y
The gene Y codes for permease
the lactose goes through the transmembrane
Gene Z
They breakdown lactose
Made by Gene Z
Uses Enzyme B Galactose
Glucose and galactose
Found in prokaryotes like Ecoli
Both + and - regulation
Negative Regulation
The trp operon
Repressor proteins inhibit transcription
Positive Regulation
The lac operon - both positive and negative
Activators help with transription
Activators, repressors [operator, promoter & terminator]
Terminator Sequence
The end sequence in which transcription ceases
Operators
Repressors does the opposite
On or off switch of transcription
Basal level expression
Activators binds to this sequence to start high level expression
Induced expression
Proteins help decrease expression
Help increase expression above basal level
Regulated expression
Basal low level expression
Continuous/ Constituted Expression
Expression ALWAYS ON
Incorporation activates and enhancers for gene expression
Distal Control Element
Specific transcription factors
Repressors
inhibits expression
Activators
Activators help to initiate high level transcription
increase expression
High level expression
lens cell in eye
May even be located in an intron
Example: enhancers
Far sequences in DNA to the gene
Proximal Control Element
General transcription factors bind to the site
Close sequences in DNA to the gene
gene are lowly expressed (basal)
Chromatin
Condensation silences gene expression
Euchromatin
Genes expressed
Less compacted
Heterochromatin
No genes expressed
Highly compacted
All cells have the same genes
About 20% genes are expressed
DNA Packaging
The loop domain then coils to form a metaphase chromosomes
The tight helical fiber is formed into loops, which are held together by a protein scaffolds at the bottom
Linker DNA is the strand of DNA not winded by histones
Beads on string
H1 is found outside nucleosome
Helps form tight helical fiber (the next level)
Brings nucleosomes together
Histone Core
Forms a histone octamer
2 molecules of each histone
H2A, H2B, H3, H4 [no H1]
Nucleosome- Histone + DNA
Histones are proteins, in which DNA wind around twice
Neuron Communication
Chemical Synapse
Communication occurs through a neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter ligands
Does not enter post synaptic membrane
Taken up by pre synaptic membrane
Breaks down through hydrolytic reaction
Neurotransmitter binds to post synaptic membrane receptor (ligand gated)
Ions go through membrane depolarization
Ca2+ can go in
The spaces between the presynaptic membrane of axon and post synaptic membrane of dendrite of the synaptic cleft
Electrical Synapse
Electrical current flows from one cell to another through gap junctions
Stages of Signaling
Cell Response
cell responds to the signal
Transduction
relate molecules to a signal transduction pathway
Phosphorylate cascade
phosphatase hydrolyzes the phosphate group to turn off kinase
Amplifies message until it reaches its target
the other kinase does same to another
Adds a phosphate group from ATP to another protein kinase
CAMP becomes inactive to AMP
Phosphodiesterase removes the cyclic component of CAMP through hydrolytic reactions
CAMP starts transduction and then inactivate
Active Adenyl cyclase make cyclic AMP (second messenger) from ATP
G protein binds to adenyl cyclase going back to GDP
Inactive G protein is activated carrying GTP
Reception
ligand binds to receptor protein
G protein uses the enzyme, Phosphatase to remove the phosphate group from GTP to GDP
Once enzyme is activated, G protein goes back to GDP
Alpha G protein diffuses from the receptor and finds an enzyme
receptor activates and GDP is converted to GTP
G protein Coupled Receptor
Alpha, Beta, Gamma Subunits
Binds GDP to GTP
Signal molecule
Hydrophilic
Helps initiate proteins to be made for male sexual traits
Testosterone Signal
Goes through phospholipid bilayer
The factor binds to promoter to start transcription
Binds to receptor to make transcription factor
Channel Receptors
Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
receptor is outside along membrane, receptor is polar
Relay proteins attach to the phosphate groups of the tyrosine to begin transduction
Kinase is activated and phosphorylation behinds
Signal molecule binds together to form dimer
Adds phosphate groups to tyrosine
Phosphorlyzes from ATP
Hydrophobic
receptor is inside cell
Cell Signaling and Transduction
Combinatorial Gene expression
Cell signaling helps to bring activators
Eukaryotes
Long distance signaling
Local signaling
short distance, have the receptor, target cell is close by
Yeast
signals for cells to combine to one
Physical contact
Desmosomes Junctions
signal receptors
Gap Junctions
plasmodesmata in plant
Subtopic
Action Potential
Hyperpolarization
Na+ and K+ is used to reach threshold
More K+ in cell
Inside is more negative
Depolarization
Happens until threshold reaches (+62 mv)
Cell gets less -
Na+ comes into cell
Growth Factor
Development
Survival factors
Death Factors
Hormones
Cytokines
Inhibit proliferation
Apoptosis (kill itself)
Metabolic activation
Proliferation (mitosis)
Differentiation
Cell moves (chemotaxis)
Gene is turned on or off
Cell starts growing and dividing
Ion channels
Gated channels
Charge of electrical voltage in cell
Voltage gated
stretch gated - mechanical stimulus
Hydrogen Pump
Sucrose H+ cotransporter
Energy us coming from proton gradient
Comes in with H+ when enters cell
No energy needed to bring it back
Sucrose moves against concentration gradient
Facilitated diffusion
Helps H+ come back into the cell
direction of the pathway depends on placement of protons
protons pumped against concentration gradient
Electrogenic pump
