PRACTICA

Mere som dette

Human Emotion

af Samuel Anderson-McCoy

Learning Environment

af Rebecca Indovina

Effortless english

af Amiteshwar Singh

Communicative Language Teaching Erick Carrillo

af Erick Carrillo

Treating escalation problems:

Ground Rules.

Conflicting parties can often be increased if the parties can identify and agree to comply with a series of ground rules governing their relationship

Making Escalation the Enemy.

In conflicts, the most horrible and destructive actions taken result from escalation dynamics, rather that the inherent evilness of the parties.

Changing Leaders.

The personalization of a conflict can often lead a group's leaders to view the conflict as a personal issue, rather than an effort to advance the group's interests.

Dealing with Extremists.

An interest group can often limit the distorting effects of extremists by publicly and forcefully condemning their actions. This may require the parties to cooperate with law enforcement officers.

Controlled Confrontation.

Conflict groups can develop ways of doing conflict that permit escalation while controlling runaway processes.

Step-by-Step De-escalation (GRIT).

GRIT stands for: Graduated Reciprocal Reductions In Tension. This involves one side making a small conciliatory gesture, which they hope is matched by a conciliatory response. If it is not, a second or third small gesture can be made to indicate one's interest and willingness to de-escalate the conflict.

Media Management.

The media will often escalate a conflict by emphasizing the extreme people and events.

Dealing with Destructive and Hateful Speech.

An argument can be made that hate speech should be censored to prevent conflict escalation and limit dehumanization.

De-escalatory Language.

It is helpful to be careful about the way one speaks to opponents and to the public-at-large in a conflict situation.

Cooling-Off Periods.

In crisis situations angry people are often under great pressure to make instantaneous decisions of great importance. People commonly act in overly confrontational ways which they later regret.

Escalation Training.

Parties often do not understand the threats posed by escalation, so they fail to take simple steps which can significantly reduce this threat.

Develop Personal Relationships.

A key to blocking the de-humanization effect are programs which systematically establish positive personal relationships between contending parties.

Future Focus.

Escalation can be limited by helping the parties focus on the future relationship that they would like to build between each other.

"I" Statements not "You" Statements.

Just by changing the way in which complaints are phrased can limit escalation pressures.ema

Conciliatory Victory.

The victorious party can reduce the intensity of future disputes by responding with conciliatory gestures rather than gloating behavior.

Observers (Protective Accompaniment).

In hostile confrontations, disputants are often tempted to do things to harm or terrorize an opponent that would be widely condemned by the larger society or the world as a whole.

Peacekeeping.

In situations of physical confrontation, it can be very useful to place peacekeepers between the parties so that violent confrontations are impossible.

Managing Strong Emotions.

Effective anger management strategies are needed to help people deal with their anger. Other strong emotions such as distrust, fear, and suspicion must be dealt with as well.

Crisis Management.

These are designed help the parties deal with conflict situations which are developing very fast and are pressuring them to act before they have had a chance to consider their options.

Treating Comunication Problems:

Establish Personal Relationships.

People who have personal relationships are more likely to be able to communicate effectively and understand each other than those who do not.

Public Information Strategy / Media Management.

Media covers up or "down plays" information which people need to know.

Telecommunications-Based Communication.

The information revolution has resulted in the widespread availability of many telecommunications technologies.

Rumor Control Teams.

Can consist of third parties trusted by all sides to a conflict or representatives of contending parties who have committed themselves to work with partners to determine the truth.

Communication Pre-Tests.

This provides the parties with an important opportunity to eliminate likely sources of misunderstanding.

Communication Skills Improvement.

In some cases communication problems arise from limitations in the parties' public speaking or writing skills, editors, writers, and trainers can help improve the situation

Crisis Communication Mechanisms.

They are designed to overcome crisis communication problems by providing highly accurate and timely information beyond which is available through normal communication channels.

Respectful Communication.

This approach permits the parties to address the difficult issues, it do it in a way which focuses upon arguments rather than personal attacks.

New Leader Briefings.

When a new leader comes along it's essential that they be fully briefed about the history of the conflict and conflict management processes.

Constituent Communication.

This technique enable a group's negotiators to convey information obtained through their negotiation or communication efforts to the larger group.

Shuttle Diplomacy /Mediated Communication.

When we found a hint of hostility, one person in the group have to take the place of a madiator to try to make the other's try to get to an agreement.

Dialogue.

This is a structured form of communication which emphasizes respectful and attentive listening about deep-rooted feelings, beliefs and experiences.

Dialogic Listening.

The parties focus on what is happening between them and it focuses on the present more than on the past or the future.

Active Listening.

This is designed to overcome poor listening practices by requiring parties to listen to and then restate their opponent's statements, emphasizing the feelings expressed as well as the substance.

Communication Accuracy .

Many factors determine how accurate communication is.

Stereotype-Breaking Actions.

Unrealistic stereotypes can often be broken or limited when a party unexpectedly takes some type of conciliatory action which would have been unthinkable had the stereotype been true.

Question Stereotypes.

The parties need to recognize that the stereotypes that they have about their opponents, and that a failure to correct these inaccuracies can easily lead to bad decisions.

Opening Lines of Communication.

By this we mean that parties should know what to do if they want to pass a message to other parties and that the other parties will carefully attend to the messages that they receive.

Treating fact-finding problems:

Truth Commissions.

One way to determine contested facts is to empanel a "truth commission" such as those used in South Africa to deal with the crimes of the apartheid era.

Alternative Methods For Presenting Data.

Sometimes it helps to present technical data in new ways, using graphs, charts, or even demonstrations of ideas that are difficult to grasp in their standard form.

Technical Primers.

Trusted teams of technical experts and educators can prepare simple and practical explanations of what the studies really mean and how the facts can be used to help parties make more sensible decisions.

Dealing With Uncertainty.

One way of dealing with uncertainty is to plan flexible approaches to problems that can be adjusted as the situation changes.

Impact-Study Requirement.

Under this approach, careful studies are made of a proposed action and possible alternatives to determine the likely social, economic, and environmental results of each possibility.

Credibility Demonstrations.

These are used by those conducting fact-finding projects to demonstrate the reliability of their work to potentially skeptical parties.

Oversight.

This can be applied in situations in which the one of the parties is doing the fact-finding and the other parties have to decide whether or not they believe the results.

Joint Fact-Finding and Data Mediation.

This technique requires the parties to collaborate in the design and oversight of the fact-finding process. This usually involves the hiring of experts who then work on behalf of and under the joint direction of the parties.

Treating framing problems:

Balanced Sociation.

This is a conscious effort by a society to make both cooperation and conflict prominent in public consciousness, formal education, and public investment.

Understanding the Usefulness of Conflict.

If the utility of conflict is understood, then mechanisms can be developed for allowing conflict to occur in a controlled and constructive way.

Finding and Borrowing Eloquent Statements of the Common Core Issues.

Here if one of these statements seems to reflect their situation it could be adapted to the new context and used as an effective way to frame the conflict.

Goal Clarification.

Figuring out what one wants and what a good end result would be is essential for determining how to respond to any conflict situation.

Power Sharing.

This is a strategy for resolving disputes over who should have the most powerful position in the social hierarchy.

Accepting, Rather Than Challenging, the Situation.

Here the issue can be resolved by simply "agreeing to disagree" or accepting the situation as another disagreeable.

Mirror Imaging.

This is a strategy which parties can use to assess the reasonableness of their behavior.

Integrative (or Win-Win) Reframing.

This is especially important when the original problem definition leaves no acceptable alternatives for the opponent.

Joint Reframing/Assisted Reframing.

When opponents in a conflict each define the conflict in very different terms it can make cooperative problem solving.

Needs-Based Framing

This approach frames a conflict as a collective effort to fulfill the fundamental human needs of all parties.

Fairness-Based Framingin.

Describes the parties approach the conflict as an effort to obtain what is rightfully theirs.

Interest-Based Framing.

Describes conflicts in terms of interests, rather than positions.

Treating procedural problems:

Grassroots Process Design.

Here the role of outsiders is to share insights from people who have dealt with similar problems in the past, and not impose their own approach.

Public Participation Mechanisms.

In cases where large groups or entire communities are involved in a dispute, public participation mechanisms can provide a means for large numbers of people to play a significant role in addressing the issue.

Conflict of Interest Rules.

In cases where clear conflicts-of-interest exist, it may be appropriate for the intermediary or decision maker to withdraw from the dispute so they can be replaced by those who do not have such conflicts.

Deliberation Requirements.

Here the goal is to establish procedures which assure that each party has enough time to prepare and present its case.

Clear Rules and Procedural Expectations.

If people's expectations regarding fair procedures are not met, they often will be upset, even if they agree with the end result.

Action Forcing Mechanisms/Deadlines.

These mechanisms counter-balance delaying tactics by using deadlines or other strategies to require the parties to take specific actions by specific dates.

Protection of Minority Rights.

In order to prevent this procedural problem, democratic systems also need to grant minorities basic rights which cannot be taken away by the majority.

Confidentiality Rules.

Closely affiliated with public information program are rules of confidentiality which clearly specify types of information which are not to be made public

Public Information Strategy.

To counteract problems associated with inappropriate publicity, the parties need to have a public information which keeps their parts informed about the progress of negotiations, and builds support for potential agreements.

Private Meetings.

This allows parties to say things that they could not say if they were being watched by the public.

Good Timing/Identifying Ripe Times For Negotiation.

By understanding when conflicts are ready or "ripe" for negotiation or other de-escalation processes, and undertaking such steps at that time, more progress can often be made.

Negotiation of Process Issues (Pre-Negotiation).

This can resolve some issues quickly, making the others less complicated, and giving the parties a feeling that progress can be made and solutions are possible.

Administrative Decision-Making Processes.

Like business executives and elected officials, such as, mayors, governors, and presidents.

During the decision-making processes, many disputes are resolved by individuals who are empowered by their organizations to be decision makers.

Consensus Rule Processes.

In consensus processes, actions cannot be taken unless it is agreed to by all parties. This makes it extremely difficult for any party to get what they want unless they are willing to grant others their wishes.

Majority Rule Processes.

One is the principle of majority rule, where issues are discussed, proposals are made and then the electorate, legislative bodies, and/or decision making committees vote on issues and the majority wins.

Meeting Facilitation.

Some facilitation techniques can help the participants reach consensus and move forward with their agenda, while others are likely to stimulate controversy and escalate the conflict further.

The person who facilitates a meeting can have a very large effect on the meeting process and outcome.

Contains three main parties:

In-between people.

They can make communication better, or worse. They can act as go-betweens, carrying messages between people who cannot or will not meet face-to-face.

Listeners.

They are sources of communication problems and they may assume they know what the other person is saying or will say.

Speakers.

They are not clear themselves about what they mean, and if they know they do not say it as clear as they should.

In order to have a good comunication with students, we must foccus on:

Voice Quality.

Your tone should match the child's. It would be inappropriate to be loud if the child is in a quiet mood.

Distracting Behaviours.

Such as playing with your hands, staring out the window, or doing something else while listening should be eliminated when talking to students.

Distance.

Standing too close can make the student uncomfortable, while standing too far away can indicate that you are disinterested.

Facial Expression.

What is shown on your face should match what is on the child's.

Eye Contact.

This shows that you are interested in what they have to say.

Posture.

It is helpful to have your shoulders squared with the student's and on about the same level so you are face-to-face.

Comunication with students:

Tips on asking questions in class:

Check for Understanding.

Check if a student understands what was communicated, ask the student to repeat directions, questions or summarize what was said.

Meaningful questions.

Monitor how many questions you ask, and the types of questions.

Monitor questioning interactions.

Thinking about if you want a close question or an open question, where the student can interact and exchange ideas.

Pause effectively before and after asking a question.

Pausing before you ask a question gives you time to phrase your question and it helps to the student to think the answer.

COMMUNICATION