homologous pairs
Second
Fourth
Third
First
Fourth
Third
First
Second
two sister chromatids
meiosis l
four sister chromatids
process of single parent cell dividing to make two new daughter cells.
Third
Second
First
Include 2 phases overall, not including Mitosis phases
Includes 3 phases in overall cycle
RNAP transcribes
activates
produces
binds to
is
binds to the
bring about
can be
can be regulated at all steps in transcription and translation
no effect on amino acid sequence
after polypeptide has completed synthesis, this enzyme catalyzes the cleavage of the signal peptide
brings free ribosome with signal polypeptide to the (.....) in the ER membrane
recognizes signal sequence on synthesized polypeptide
signal sequence is translated which determines proteins location
protein synthesis starts on
adds carbon to ribulose bisphosphate which is short lived
4 H+ ions pumped into thylakoid space directly after electrons transferred from photosystem II to Pq
occurs in the thylakoid space in chloroplasts
when carbon dioxide has a low concentration in plant cells (stomata are closed in hot and dry conditions)
resulting from lactic acid fermentation
hydrogen ions are actively transported here (powered by electron transference)
As glycolysis continues Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate is produced by phosphofructokinase which adds another phosphate from ATP
The enzyme transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose
contraction
Muscle movement, motility, division, etc
phagocytosis
Transportation of proteins
Reinforces cell shape
Digestive organelle
sorting, secretion, synthesis
roles of O2
typical prokaryote cell contains
major nutritional mode
major nutritional mode
uses
Makes proteins
bring the activators in contact with the mediator proteins and transcription factors
2 NAD+, 2 NADH, 2 H+
light excites electrons in chlorophyll
electron are transferred to each complex
also has special pair of chlorophyll
hydrogen ions in matrix want to enter intermembrance space becasue of the electrochemical gradient
ADP, 2iP, 2 ATP
produces oxygen following stripping two electrons from water molecule
once structure is folded, the protein is transported to the golgi body in
must bind to DNA before RNA polymerase II can bind in the correct position and orientation
repressor binds
Organelle movement
output of the calvin cycle in which sugar (C6H12O6 can be produced
produced in the stroma
use diffusion hydrogen ions to produce ATP which is an endergonic process
Allows passage through cell wtihout contact with phospholipid Bilayer allowing only certain molecules to pass
provides 2 electrons
occurs when high concentration of
photosynthesis is a process used by photoautotrophs
2 ATP molecules are used
still produced but NADPH is not
fffffffffffff
lac repressor expression is
seals free end of the new DNA to the old DNA
within these steps of cellular respiration, ATP is made when an enzyme binds a substrate inorganic phosphate with an ADP molecule
have special pair chlorophyll
Stop codon causes the polypeptide to stop synthesizing prematurely
result from alcohol fermentation
Autophagy
Because of the selective permeability of bacterial cell membranes, lactose cannot pass through because it is simply to large. To resolve this, the lac Y gene of the lac Operon is translated to produce permease which allows for the transport of lactose
2 NAD+, 2 NADH, 2 H+
uses
Acid Hydrolases
helps RNAP bind tighter to the promoter
an enzyme that cuts the damaged DNA strand at two intervals and removes it
no sugars made
Only in certain animal cells
contains branched lipids
prevents RNA polymerase II from binding to the promoter to decrease level of transcription
absence of oxygen
In the case of missense mutations, the overall structure and function of the translated protein may not be altered if the amino acid has a R-group that shares the same polarity, basicity, or acidity with the wild type protein.
electrons used from electron carriers (they are oxidized and reused
modify proteins from the rough ER
Ser instead of Gly which alters protein structure
photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
resulting from lactic acid fermentation
activator binds
electrons from ferredoxin reduce NADP+ to produce NADPH
Creates ATP
Cytoplasm bounded
result from alcohol fermentation
the net amount of ATP produced is 2
signal sequence can transport the synthesized protein to the rough ER
2 pyruvate made by the end of glycolysis
a plastid unique to plant cells
DNA strands coppied to make two duplicate DNA molecules
is regulated at the transcription level
The living bacterial S cells in Fredrick Griffith’s experiment had glycocalyxs whichhice died once injected with these bacterial cells.
made up of polysaccharide or protein
recognize this sequence in the promoter and bind
Acts as a barrier that seperates the inner cell and outside environment of the cell
produced
code for pressor
2 ADP + 2iP= 2 ATP
fills in the missing nucleotides using undamaged strand as a template
embedded in the
occurs when low concentration of

fl

f

Water properties

Acids and bases

g

Isomers and polymers

Functional Groups

Lipids

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Nucleic Acids

2 NAD+, 2 NADH, 2 H+

2 NAD+, 2 NADH, 2 H+

Membrane Proteins

Transport Protiens

Channel Proteins

Subtopic

Carrier Proteins

Intramolecular bonds

Ionic bonds

Non-polar covalent bonds

Polar covalent bonds

Prokaryotes

MBr

Prokaryotes are split into Domain Archaea and Domain Bacterial

Domain Bacterial

Nucleoid

r

DNA location

Plamid

r

DNA that is separate from the main bacterial chromosome

Gas vacuole

r

Buoyancy of floating in aquatic environements

Periplasmic Space

r

Periplasmic space contains hydrolytic enzymes and binding proteins for nutrient processing/ uptake.

pili

r

bacteria mating

peptidoglycan

r

cell wall filled with peptidoglycan. Helps bacteria with support, protects the cell, and maintains the shape.

Capsules/ slime layers

r

helps resists against phagocytosis and adherence to surfaces

Endospore

r

Endospores serve a purpose for survival under harsh environmental conditions.

Autotroph

r

Autotrophs use inorganic carbon sources

Photoautotroph

r

phototrophs obtain energy from the light

Chemoautotroph

r

Chemotrophs get their energy from inorganic chemicals.

Heterotroph

r

Heterotrophs get carbon from organic compounds

Photoheterotroph

r

phototrophs obtain energy from the light

Chemoheterotroph

r

Chemotrophs get their energy from organic chemicals.

Fimbriae

r

helps with attachment

Nucleoid

r

DNA location

Ribosomes

r

protein synthesis takes place

Plasma membrane

r

membrane that enclosing the cytoplasm

cell wall

r

structure outside the plasma membrane

Glycocalyx

r

outer coating consists of a capsule of a slime layer

Flagella

r

movement structure

metabolism

obligate anaerobes

r

use of fermentation anaerobic respiration

Facultative anaerobes

r

uses O2 when present, uses fermentation when O2 is not present.

obligate aerobes

r

requires o2 for cell respiration

Methanogens

r

Methanogens are Prokaryotic domain archaea cells that live in swamps and marshes to produce methane as a waste product.

Domain Archaea

Extreme thermophiles

r

Archaea that thrives in very hot environments

Extreme halophiles

r

Archaea that lives in highly saline environments

Steroids

Phospholipids

Fats

Unsaturated

Saturated

cell structures and functions

Eukaryotes

Cell components

Endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth ER

Rough Er

Golgi apparatus

Vesicles

Lysosomes

Hydrogen pump

ATP

ADP

Vacuoles

Food

Contractile

Central

Nucleus

Nucleolus

Chromatin

Cytoskeleton

Microtubules

Tubulin

Intermidate Filaments

Microfilaments

Actin

myosin

Mitochondria

Named the powerhouse of a eukaryotic cell, as it generates ATP

Cell Types

Animal

Cell junctions

Desmosomes

Gap Junction

Tight

ECM

Plant

Plasmodesmata

Cell Wall

Functions of Membrane Protiens

Transport

Cell-Cell Recognition

Enzymatic Activity

Binding to ECM

Signal Transduction

Intercellular Joining

Nuclear envelope

Nuclear pores

inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cell Signaling

Cell Membrane

Membrane Receptors

MBr

In target cells that receives the signal molecule.

Intercellular receptors

r

present in the cytoplasm, in the nucleus

1. passes through the membrane

r

The signal molecule can bind if nonpolar or hydrophobic so it can pass the lipid bilayer and bind a receptor once inside the cell.

2. activation

r

The hormone binds to the receptor protein and activates it.

3. binds to specific genes

r

The hormone enters the nucleus and binds to specific genes.

4. protein acts as transcription factor

r

stimulating the transcription of the gene into mRNA

5. mRNA translated into protein

Membrane receptor

r

present on the plasma membrane

First messenger

r

Signal molecule is hydrophilic

G protein coupled receptor

r

Guanosine diphosphate, GDP, inactive form.Guanosine triphosphate, GTP, active form

Binds GPCR

r

The single molecule binds to GPCR during reception

converting to GTP

r

G protein binds to the GPCR converting the GDP to GTP on the G protein

Activation of G protein

r

Happens when GTP binding

activate enzyme

r

the G protein can activate the enzyme

second messenger

r

needs help of the other molecules inside cellsThey are small, nonprotein, water soluble molecules/ions that are used in signal transduction to relay a signal within a cell.Synthesized from ATP using enzyme Adenylyl Cyclase

cyclic AMP

Adenylyl Cyclase

r

converts the ATP to cAMP

Protein synthesis

r

Changes the activity of metabolic enzyme and open/close of ion channels

Gene expression

r

mRNA are converted into proteins can turn off some genes

cGMP

Ca^2+

nitric oxide

carbon monoxide

ATP

3 stages

1st reception

2nd reception

3rd reception

Tyrosine Kinase Receptor

r

when phosphate groups are added to tyrosines

2 polypeptides

r

the polypeptides dimerize when a signal molecule is bound to them.

can add phosphate groups to something

Dimer

r

when a signal molecule binds it activating monomers to allow them to come together forming a dimer.

Interacting proteins

r

the activated tyrosine kinase receptor can now interact with other proteins for responses from the cells.

protein kinases

r

enzymes that catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to proteins

Autophosphorylation

r

When each polypeptide on dimerization functions as a kinase so it takes phosphate groups from ATP and adds it to the other polypeptides.

ion channel receptor

r

Ligand gated ion channel receptor acts as a gate for ions to pass and change shape.

Phospholipid Bilayer

Hydrophilic Head

Hydrophobic Tail

Fluidity

Selectively permeable

Attatchment site

g

3 Step Process

1.)Glycolysis

Energy investment phase

Glucose

Glucose 6-phosphate

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

Energy pay off phase

2 NADH produced

Subtopic

Subtopic

Pyruvate

Acetyl CoA

r

Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle

pyruvate oxidation

Electron carrier NAD+ is reduced from the electrons from Pyruvate to produce NADH. A carbon is released from Pyruvate and produces carbon dioxide and a CoA molecule is joined with the remaining two carbons of Pyruvate

Citric Acid Cycle

r

produces 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 after both acetyl CoA molecules enter and complete the cycle

3.) ETC and Chemiosmosis

occurs in the inner membrane

protein complexes

Matrix of mitochondrion

ATP Synthase

Fermentation.

Alcohol

converts sugars to ethanol and carbon dioxide

Lactic Acid

breaks down sugars

makes ATP

lactate

produced from exercise and metabolism

aerobic conditions

anaerobic conditions

2 ATP made in citric acid cycle

NAD+ Regeneration

oxidizing

bacteria pathway

NADH and FADH2 produced from glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and citric acid cycle

Acetaldehyde

used for synthesis

formed from the breakdown of ethanol

Floating topic

ATP synthesis

substrate level phosphorylation

Organic Molecules

carbohydrates

sugars

proteins

amino acids

nucleotides

lipids

glycerol

fatty acids

Photosynthesis

Oxidized

water

6CO2 +6H20 + Light ---> C6H12O6 + 6O2

reduced

carbon dioxide

light reactions

chlorophyll

thylakoid membrane

photosystem I (P700)

Photosystem II (P680)

Non-cyclic flow of electrons

cyclic electron flow

thylakoid space

H+ ions

r

The hydrogen ions want to go with its chemical gradient in which ATP synthase allows for passage to the stroma, which has a low hydrogen ion concentration. ATP is produced when hydrogen ions pass through ATP synthase.

stroma

Photorespiration

calvin cycle

r

two turns of the Calvin cycle are required to produce glucose

carbon dioxide

rubisco

ribulose bisphosphate

carbon fixation

chloroplast

NADPH

ATP

water

oxygen (O2)

NADP+ reductase

ATP

12 NADPH

18 ATP

G3P

Protein transport

trans-face of golgi body

amylase, insulin, casein, albumin, and collagen

r

Amylase- a digestive enzyme found in lysosomes insulin- a peptide hormone casein- a milk protein albumin- a serum protein collagen- an extracellular matrix protein (gives plasma membrane increase tensile strength)

free ribosomes

signal sequence

SRP

Subtopic

signal peptidase

r

Once the the signal peptide is cleaved, the polypeptide is released from the bound ribosome and folds into final conformation

vesicles

polypeptide

glycoprotein

secrete enzymes such as

Mutations

silent

wild type mRNA: 5'-AUG AAG UUU GGC UAA- 3'

mutant type mRNA: 5'- AUG AAG UUU GGU UAA- 3'

missense

wild type mRNA: 5' AUG AAG UUU GGC UAA

Nonsense

wild type mRNA: 5' AUG AAG UUU GGC UAA

sickle cell anemia

frameshift

r

occurs in the event of 1 to 2 insertions or deletions of 1-2 nucleotides

Subtopic

wild type amino acids: Met Lys Phe Gly Stop

mutant type amino acids: Met Lys Phe Gly Stop

wild type amino acids: Met Lys Phe Gly Stop

mutant type mRNA: 5'- AUG AAG UUU AGC UAA-3'

mutant type amino acids: Met Lys Phe Ser Stop

wild type amino acids: wild type amino acids: Met Lys Phe Gly Stop

mutant type mRNA: 5'- AUG UAG UUU GGU UAA-3'

mutant type amino acids:Met Stop

Nucleotide Excision Repair

thymine dimer

nuclease

DNA polymerase II

DNA ligase

Gene Regulation

in eukaryotes

gene expression

combinatorial control of gene expression

Liver cell

albumin gene expressed due to activators

lens cell (eye)

albumin gene not expressed due to repressor binding enhancer

in prokaryotes

transcription factors

repressors

reduce high level transcription

activators

high level transcription

enhancers

upstream or downstream of gene

general

basal level transcription

RNA polymerase II

TATA box

DNA bending protein

crystallin gene not expressed due to repressor

Crystallin gene expressed due to activators binding enhancer

operon

r

The operon comprises an operator (the on/off switch) followed by a cluster of functionally related genes.

cluster of functionally related genes

lac operon

no lactose

repressor

operator

off

on

lactose present, no glucose

repressor

allolactose

adenyl cyclase

cAMP

CAP

promoter

lactose present, glucose present

operator

r

When glucose is available in the bacterial cell, the operon will be off in which the repressor will bind to the operator. However, when the glucose is used completely, the operon turns on and the repressor will unbind and instead bind to allolactose. Beta-galactosidase, permease, and transacetylase will be translated from the mRNA to catabolize lactose, to make more glucose.

off and then on

operator

positive regulation

negative regulation

constitutive

lacI gene

RNAP

lacZ, lacY, lacA

beta galactosidase, permease, beta transacetylase (respectively)

r

permease: allow the bacterial cell to take up sugar like lactose beta-galactosidase: hydrolyzes lactose to produce galactose and glucose; glucose is preferred by bacteria cell transacetylase: transfers an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to beta-galactosides

DNA Replication

Proteins used in DNA replication

Topoisomerase

Goes ahead of the helicase to releive "overwinding" of the DNA to ensure replications

Primase

Sets an RNA primer so DNA polymerase III can create the leading strands and lagging strands

Helicase

Unwinds parental double helix at replication forks

Ligase

Binds the 3' end of the DNA that replaced the primer to the eading strand and "glues" together the Okazaki fragments from the lagginf strand

SSB proteins

Binds to the Single stranded DNA after Helicase unwids the double helix, making sure the DNA can be used as a template

DNA Polymerase I

Removes the RNA primer from the synthesized DNA strand

DNA Polymerase III

Synthesizes new DNA strand by adding nucleotide to the 3' end of a pre exisitng DNA strand or off the RNA promer

DNA starts on the Origin of replication

Helicase , Topoisomerase and SSB begin to unwind the DNA into two different strands, creating a replication fork

Primase creates a strip of RNA primer so DNA Polymerase III can begin synthesizing the Leading and lagging strands

Leading strands go towards the replication fork, synthesizing 3' to 5'

Once synthesized, DNA polymerase I removes the RNA primer and replaces with DNA

Ligase binds the DNA together, completing the process

Lagging Strands go opposite of the leading strand

Also reffered to as Okazaki Fragments

Experiments Finding DNA

Fredrick Griffith Experiment

Bacterial strands

Heat killed S strand + R strand

dead mouse

R strand

alive mouse

S strand

dead mouse

Heat killed S strand

dead mouse

Messelon and Stahl Experiment

Medium containing N

less dense medium

intermediate medium

Hershey and Chase

Batch 1

protein found

Batch 2

DNA found

Translation

occurs in the cytosol of prokaryotes

Initiation

small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA

large subunit - rRNA with protein called initiation factors.

A site available for tRNA with the next amino acid.

initiator tRNA in the P site.

start codon - AUG (Met)

Elongation

tRNA and amino acid

peptide bond formed

removal of polypedtide from P site to attach to A site.

codon recognition - anticodons bind to mRNA codons in A site.

Translocation - ribosome translocates tRNA in A site to P site.

empty tRNA in P site is moved to E site to be released

mRNA with tRNAs bring the next codon to be translated into the A site.

tRNA

P site - peptidyl-tRNA binding site

E site - exit site

A site - Aminoacyl tRNA binding site

Occurs in the nucleus of Eukaryotes

Termination

ribosomes reach top codon - UAG, UAA, or UGA

Site A accepts release factor - release factor breaks hydrolysis bond between P site tRNA and the last amino acid.

subunits break apart

Cell Cycle

Interphase

Phases of Interphase

G1 Phase

Growth of Cell and acquires materials for DNA synthesis

S Phase (DNA SYNTHESIS)

DNA Synthesis and DNA Replication occur resulting in duplication of chromosomes

G2 Phase

More Growth of cell and cell synthesizing of proteins for cell division

End of G2 completions

Two centrosomes formed by duplication

Each centrosome contains 2 centrioles

Nucleus with envelope seen

Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli

Mitotic phase

Cytokinesis

Mitosis

Phases of Mitosis

Prophase

Chromosomes condense and become visible, nuclear envelope breaks down.

Metaphase

Chromosomes align at the cell's equator, spindle fibers attach to kinetochores.

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers.

Telophase

Nuclear envelope reforms, chromosomes decondense, and spindle fibers disassemble.

Meiosis

Meiosis ll

Metaphase ll

Prophase ll

Anaphase ll

Telophase ll and Cytokinesis

four haploid cells with two sister chromatids

Crossing Over

exchange of genetic material between homologous pairs

Meiosis l

Prophase l

Chromosomes pair up and exchange segments

Anaphase l

pairs separate

Telophase l and Cytokinesis

Two haploid cells with two sister chromatids

Metaphase l

Chromosomes line up by pairs