Climate Change

People have been studying, recording and analyzing the weather for only a few centuries. But, in order to understand what was the climate like a few centuries ago, scientists have to get creative. Paleoclimatologists are people who study and analyze the past climates.

Ways to analyze past climates

Temperature and rainfall both have an effect on tree growth. The total amount that a tree grows during each season is determined by the size and the color for each annual ring. Dendrochronologists study and analyze the details about the size, color, and the shape of each ring. A wide ring indicates wet and cool weather, which allows trees to grow faster. A thin ring, however, indicates that it was grown in dry and hot conditions, when tree growth is a lot slower. A dark ring indicates the growth during the late summer season, and a light-colored ring means the tree had been grown during the springtime.

Much like tree rings, the layers of snow and ice gather together each year. In order to show the evidence of past climate conditions, scientists use a specific drill designed to drill deep through the layers to extrect long, cylinder-shaped samples which are called ice cores. Scientists then analyze the thickness and the composition of ice in each layer to make speculations about the past climates.

Evidence of Past Climates Obtained from Ice Cores

Dissolved and particulate matter in ice
(Dust, ashes, salts, plant pollen and other materials)
The frozen samples of these materials gives clues about previous events and conditions, such as volcanic eruptions, meteorite impacts, and wildfires.

Physical characteristics of the ice
(crystal size and shape)
Characteristics help identify the conditions of temperature and humidity around the time the ice crystals were formed.

The composition of the trapped air bubbles
When water freezes, the tiny air bubbles in the water becomes trapped in the ice. The air pockets allow scientists to study and analyze the greenhouse gases concentration over centuries and thousands of years.

The composition of the ice
Water consists of differing proportions of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes. Isotopes are different variants of an atom. Water that consists of oxygen-18 freezes at a much higher temperature than oxygen-16 water. Furthermore, water that consists of oxygen-16 tend to evaporate much quicker than oxygen-18 water. For that reason, the concentration of isotopes in different layers of ice represents the temperature around the time the ice had formed.

The remains or traces of living things, which are known as fossils, also provide clues when paleoclimatologists analyze and recreate the past climates. The many types and plentifulness of fossilized remains in each rock layer can help scientists recreate the environment around the time the layer formed, including the climate. Since plants and animals are differently adapted in the environment to where they live, analyzing the fossils can help determine about what the environments looked like millions of years ago.

The Rate of Climate Change
Scientists are stil discussing whether climate change is affected by gradual or by catastrophic changes. But, this question is at the center of a disagreement about whether human activity is the main cause of climate change. However, many climatologists agree that humans are affecting the structure of Earth's atmosphere. This affection may increase or decrease the rate of the climate change progression.

Evidence of Past Climates from Sedimentary Rock
In order to get evidence of climates which are older than can be analyzed in ice cores (1 million+ years old), scientists have to examine and analyze rocks. Every year, billons of tons of sediments (rock fragments) wash from the land and gather together in thick layers on ocean floors and lake beds. The hard parts of microscopic sea creatures, like algae and diatoms, as well as pollen from flowers are preserved in these sediments. Over long periods of time, the deposited material becomes pressured and hardened to later form into sedimentary rock.

EPICA and GRIP

The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) had gathered climate data from around 800,000 years ago.

The drilling had reached 3270 meters deep.

The data is then compared with research from the Greenland Ice Core Project (GRIP).

As a result, the data lead to a more complete picture and offered a better understanding of climate change.

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that has been occuring for millions of years. The gases and clouds take in infrared radiation that has been emitted from Earth's surface and radiate it in all directions, heating up the atmosphere as well as the surface.

The climate system moderates Earth's temperature by absorbing and storing energy from the sun and distributes it worldwide. So for that reason, every day and night, the temperature always remain constant.

Without the greenhouse effect, which is needed for life to exist and thrive, the earth's temperature would be 255 Kelvin (-18℃) instead of 15℃ (Earth's average temperature)

Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases are any gases in the atmosphere that absorbs lower energy and infrared radiation. The majority of the air is made up of nitrogen and oxygen, which do not absorb the radiation from the surface. Greenhouse gases are trapped in the troposphere, which is up to 16,000 meters above the Earth's surface.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) makes up about 385 ppm of the Earth's surface, which represents exactly about 0.0385%. However, CO2 is expected to cause up to a quarter of the natural greenhouse gases on Earth. CO2 molecules also have atoms that vibrate and wiggle in different ways, but can also absorb different types of energy.

Anthropogenic (Human Influenced) Sources of Carbon Dioxide

Burning fossil fuels (coal, gasoline, natural gases), releases CO2

Deforestation - restrains photosynthesis, which would remove CO2 from the atmosphere; as leftover forest waste decomposes, it becomes greenhouse gases

Carbon Dioxide & Global Temperature

Increasing of CO2 levels result to increasing global temperatures due to the greenhouse effect; however, increasing of the temperature can result CO2 levels to grow

As the temperature increases, the CO2 kept in plants and oceans get released

In the atmosphere, there is fewer methane (CH4) than CO2, however, it's very strong and powerful. CH4 can absorb and trap 23 times more thermal energy than CO2. It also comes from natural and human sources, and is emitted into the air from plant decompostion and animal digestion.

Anthropogenic (Human Influenced) Sources of Methane

Agriculture - rice farming, cattle ranching, etc.

Landfill/sewage treatment plants - methane is released into the atmosphere as an organic material decay

Coal mining and natural gas extractions cause methane to be released into the atmosphere

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is 300 times more stronger than a CO2 molecule as a greenhouse gas, but it has lower concentration. N2O also comes from bacteria that produce it, as well as human sources.

Anthropogenic (Human Influenced) Sources of Nitrous Oxide

Used for nitrogen fertilizers

Fossil fuel combustion

Livestock manure

Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs)

no natural sources of CFCs

leaks out of refrigerators/air conditioners

2/3 of the natural greenhouse effect is caused from the water vapour in the atmosphere. The amount of water in the atmosphere can be determined by the temperature, which is about 4%. Water vapour and temperature are both associated by a positive feedback loop.

For hundreds and thousands of years, greenhouse gases have been an important part of our atmosphere and have also been involved in the natural greenhouse effect.

Positive Feedback Loop
A produces more of B, which in turn produces more of A.
For example: High temperatures causes more water to evaporate into the air and form water vapour.
Water vapour is effective on trapping heat, so that more of the vapour increases the temperature.

Negative Feedback Loop
A self-regulating system that functions in order to get more stable.
For example, in this scenario, the temperature in a heated room reaches a specific limit; the heating is then turned off, and the temperature begins to fall as a result. When the temperature drops down to the lowest limit, the heating is then switched back again.

Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect

The growing amount of the lower-energy infrared radiation trapped from the atmosphere as a result of rising greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere due to human activity, which is eventually causing Earth's temperature to grow warmer substantially

Koppen-Geiger Classification Categories

Tropical

Dry

Moderate

Continental

Polar

Factors that Influence Weather

The Water Cycle

Air Masses

Jet Streams

Weather Fronts

Climate - the pattern of the weather in a specific region over a long period of time, but also determines what plants and animals live there

Weather - conditions in a specific location that usually lasts over a short period of time

Factors Affecting Climate

Distance from equator (latitude)

Presence of large bodies of water

Presence of ocean and air currents

Land formations

Height above sea level (altitude)

How can information about climate zones be used?

Climate zones can be pretty useful for gardening and farming because plants can best grow in climate conditions which are found within the native ecosystems.

Factors that Influence Climate

Elevation or Altitude affect climate

As altitude increases, climate conditions usually become colder over time. The life zones on mountains consist of these changes, but snow has the highest elevations.

Prevailing global wind patterns

There are six main wind patterns worldwide; three in the nothern hemisphere and the other three in the south. As the seasons change over time, the wind patterns either shift northwards or southwards.

Topography

Topography can also change the climate depending on the specific location. For instance, mountain ranges can be barriers for air movement. In the Costal Range, the mountains allow for some condensation as well as light precipitation.

Effects of Geography

The specific area of where a town or city is placed, and how far it is located from mountains and water areas can help control the wind patterns and the air masses affecting it. For instance, costal areas can enjoy refreshing breezes during the summer, while cooler ocean air moves across the oceans.

Surface of the Earth

The amount of sunlight Earth's surface recieves determines how much atmospheric heating occurs. Darker areas, such as heavily vegetated regions, tend to be as good absorbers, while lighter areas, such as snow or ice-covered regions, tend to be as good reflectors. The oceans slowly absorbs and loses more heat than land. The waters then release the heat into the atmosphere, which is then carried out worldwide.

Climate change over time

Over the years, cold and warm periods have impacted Earth's history. While some had lasted over a short period of time, others had lasted for hundreds or even thousands of years. During cold periods, glaciers grew a lot bigger and had spreaded across the oceans. And during warm periods, the ice melted. These periods had negatively affected plant and animal life. Since the beginning of the 20th century, temperatures had been constantly rising across the world. However, it's not officialy clear if global warming is being caused by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and destroying forests.

Sun & Earth’s Climate System

The climate system consists of four compound parts that interact with each other to produce Earth's climate. These parts include:

Consists of Earth's rocky crust, and land surfaces

Consists of liquid water, ice, and water vapour

Consists of the gases surrounding Earth

Consists of plants, animals, microbes or any other living thing

The climate system is powered by the sun. The energy in which the Earth recieves from the sun interacts with the climate system parts to produce climate zones.

Weather Map Key

A specific area of high pressure in a clockwise rotation in the northern hemisphere; counterclockwise in the south.

A specific area of low pressure in a counterclockwise rotation in the northern hemisphere; clockwise in the south.

A moving cyclone with one or more locked isobars, and has a minute max of sustained surface winds of around 39 to 73 mph.

A moving cyclone with interlocked contours, which have a strong rotation, and can have a minute max of sustained surface winds of 74 mph and up.

An edge of a colder air mass, which divides the two air masses and maximizes the gradients of temperature and moisture

An edge of a warmer air mass, which divides the two air masses. Moisture and temperature gradients are maximized in the frontal zone.

Earth Absorbs Energy From the Sun

When radiation contacts a matter particle, one of these three things happens.

The particle may gain energy by absorbing the radiation.

The radiation may be transmitted through the particle.

The radiation my be reflected off the particle.

Earth’s Surface Emits Energy

As Earth's surface warms up from the sun's energy, it obtains thrmal energy and then converts it into low-energy infrared radiation.

The amount of energy radiated by Earth's system is equivalent to the amount of energy Earth's system absorbs from the sun.

The global temperature stays relatively constant, since this energy is balanced.

Equilibrium

The balance between the energy absorbed from the sun and the energy released from the Earth makes sure that the global temperature remains relatively constant.

If there's no climate system, the Earth would still have an energy equilibrium, but Earth would also be colder.

The greenhouse effect is also responsible for Earth not being cold. Without the greenhouse effect, which is needed for life to exist and thrive, the earth's temperature would be 255 Kelvin (-18℃) instead of 15℃ (Earth's average temperature).

The Sun's energy is more high near the Earth's equator, since it hits the surface directly

The sun's energy is low near the two poles, since the energy hits the surface at a specific area and spreads over a large area

Thermohaline circulation (THC) -Winds drive ocean currents up 100 meters of the oceans surface, but can also flow thousands of meters beneath the surface. The deep-ocean currents are driven by the differences in the water density, which is controlled by the temperature. Melting ice and warm waters can result in changing the flow directions of ocean currents. Ice is frozen fresh water; therefore, if the sea ice, icebergs and glaciers all melt, there will be more freshwater added to the oceans. This can eventually diminish the salt contents of the sea water. Freshwater is less dense than saltwater, so it stays on the surface. At the North Atlantic surface, the dense saltwater sinks, bringing the currents through the deep parts of Earth's oceans.

The cell grows to a bigger size, makes a DNA copy, and gets ready to divide into two cells. Two centrioles are also duplicated as well.

The chromatin from the nucleus begins to condense into chromosomes. The centriole pairs then move to different sides of the nucleus. Spindle fibres begin to create a bridge between the cell ends. The nuclear envelope begins to break down.

The chromosomes then line up across the cell. All of them are attached to each spindle fiber as its centromere.

The centromeres then split into two and the two chromatids seperate from each other. One chromatid is attached to its spindle fiber while the other shifts to the opposite end. The cells stretches out while the ends are being pushed apart.

The chromosomes begin to stretch outwards and lose their rodlike appearance. A new nuclear envelope eventually forms around each region of chromosomes.

The cell membrane is then pinched down in the middle. As a result, the cell splits into two. Each daughter cell ends up with the identical set of chromosomes as well as half of the organelles.

Carries oxygen

Found in blood

Large surface area for oxygen to pass through

Consists of hemoglobin, which joins with oxygen

Consists of no nucleus, which increases surface area

Its purpose is to fertilize

It is found in the ovaries

Egg cells are usually bulky and large

These cells consists of a yolk which contains food storage for the new cell being formed

Its main purpose is to fertilize eggs

A single sperm is relatively small in size and has a long tail which provides movement, so it can swim and find the egg cell

It's found in the testes

The head consists of enzymes inside it which allows the cell to digest into an egg cell and join with it.

They have a long length

They have connections at each end

They have the ability to carry electric signals

Their main purpose is to carry nerve impules to different parts of the body

Its purpose is to absorb

Always found in a plant root

Consists of a large surface which helps it absorb water and other nutrients

A thin cell wall makes it easier for minerals to pass through

Its main purpose is to photosynthesize

It is found in the top of a leaf

It is relatively tall and has a large surface area to absorb nutrients

Consists of chloroplasts around it to help produce plant food

Their main purpose is to prevent lung damage

They line all the air passages in the lungs together

They consist of lots of cilia, which are tiny hairs

The cilia sweeps the mucus with trapped dust, and the bacteria backs up the throat

Major Parts

Responsibilities

Transport and distribute nutrients, oxygen and waste throughout the entire body

Major Parts

Responsibilities

Exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen

Major Parts

Responsibilities

Break down food, absorb nutrients and eliminate waste

Major Parts

Responsibilities

Controls the senses as well as direct other systems

Major Parts

Rectum

Anus

Responsibilities

Eliminating waste from blood

Major Parts

Responsibilities

Protects the body from invaders, such as viruses

Major Parts

Responsibilities

Protects and supports the organs, and producing red and white blood cells.

Types of Microscopes

These microscopes are mostly used in schools, and uses compound lenses to magnify objects. The lenses refract light to make the object beneath them appear a lot closer. Their common magnifications are 40x, 100x and 400x.

Much like binoculars, this microscope uses two-eye lenses to view larger specimens. Their lenses usually magnify 10x to 20x, but they can also be usable for larger specimens. They can even create 3D specimen views.

This special microscope allows scientists to view a world too microscopic to be seen through a light microscope. SEMs do not use light waves; instead, they use negatively charged electrons to magnify at up to two million times. SEMs can also view specimens in 3D, but cannot view living specimens, as this might kill them.

TEMs also use electrons, however, instead of scanning the surface, electrons are passed through thin specimens.

Parts of a Microscope

Eyepiece

Body Tube

Revolving Nosepiece

Arm

Objective Lens

Stage

Stage Clips

Coarse Focus

Diaphragm

Fine Focus

Light

Base

Two Cell Types

Prokaryotes

No Nucleus

No Membrane Bound Organelles

Eukaryotes

Consists of a Nucleus

Consists of Membrane Bound Organelles

Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Surrounds the cell and determines what comes in and goes out

Absorbs nutrients in and lets waste out

Also known as Plasma Membrane

Found in plant cells, animal cells and prokaryotic cells

Controls the center of the cell

Stores and keep DNA

Surrounded by the nuclear membrane

Also consists of the nucleolus inside, which produces ribosomes

Found in plant and animal cells

The smallest organelles

It is not surrounded by a membrane

Makes the proteins based on DNA instructions

Two types

Bound ribosomes are attached to rough ER

Free ribosomes float freely in cytosol

Found in plant, animal, and prokaryotic cells

Transport the system for materials in the cell

Two types

Rough ER is covered with ribosomes; site of protein synthesis

Smooth ER has no ribosomes; it produces horomones and lipids instead

Found in plant and animal cells

Functions as the delivery packaging system of the cell

Collects, modifies and packages cell molecules

Distributes and transports molecules through the vescicles

Found in plant and animal cells

Functions as the trash disposer of the cell

Consists of digestive enzymes which breaks down waste

Found in plant and animal cells

Functions as the powerhouse of the cell

Site of celluar respiration

Changes energy which are stored in food to energy the cell needs; ATP

Found in plant and animal cells

Found only in plant cells and algae

Consists of a green pigmnt; chlorophyll

Converts sunlight into food such as glucose

Functions as a protective barrier for the cell

Found only in plant and bacteria cells

Located outside of the cell membrane

Made of celluose

Large, centred vacuoles are usually in plant cells

Many smaller vacuoles are part of animal cells

Functions as the storage room for water, food, enzymes, waste, etc

Supports the cell shape in plants

What is cancer?

Cancer can form and develop anywhere in the body, and it can also happen at any age.

Unlike other infectious diseases such as flu or the coronavirus, cancer is not contagious.

There are over 100 different types of cancer.

Statistics

1 in 4 deaths are caused by cancer

According to incident rates in 2009, it is estimated that 40% of Canadian women and 45% of men will develop cancer during their lifetimes.

Two Tumor Types

Benign (non-cancerous) - does not spread, although it can sometimes be malignant

Malignant (cancerous) - has the ability to spread to other parts of the body

Preventing Cancer

Early detection of cancer is important. Cervical, breast and colorectal cancer screening as well as a self-exam for testicular cancer.

WHMIS Symbols

Contents are under pressure

Explosion danger

Do not puncture, drop or place it near a heat source

Fire hazard

Flammable can cause fire at lower temperatures than combustible materials

Store in a cool area

Fire/explosion risk

Keep away from open flames as well as combustable materials

Can cause death if exposed to small amounts

May burn eyes or skin

Poisonous over long-term exposure

May cause cancer, birth defects or sterility

May cause serious diseases resulting in illness or death

Avoid contamination

Can burn metals, skin or eyes

Avoid getting in contact with or inhaling

Extremely reactive

Explosive hazard

Less critical health hazards

May cause extreme ozone damage

May cause damage to the aquatic environment

HHPS Symbols (Hazardous Household Product Symbols)

Glassware

Volumetric Glassware

A tall, narrow glass container with a volume scale

Used to measure liquids' volume ranging from 10 - 100 mL

Used for accurate measurement

Non-Volumetric Glassware

A glass that consists of a wide mouth and a lip for pouring. Their sizes range between 50 and 1000 mL. Their main usage is for holding, mixing and heating liquids. They can also be used to transport liquids to another container. They are marked "graduated" on the side to indicate the approximate volume of their contents. Beakers are not appropriate for measurement accuracy.

These flasks are useful for mixing liquids by swirling them using a hand holding the neck. Like beakers, they are also marked "graduated" on the side to indicate the approximate volume of their contents. Erlenmeyer flasks are not appropriate for measurement accuracy.

A lipped tube mainly used for heating, mixing or holding small amounts of solid or liquid chemicals

Other Equipment

Used to hold 6 or 12 test tubes

Used to pour liquids into containers which have small openings

Used to transport a small quantity of a liquid

Used for lifting containers that contains high temperature chemicals

A metal stand used containing a long, upright rod attached to a rectangular base. Used for supporting laboratory equipment

Used to hold thermometers on ring stands

Used for pulling something, or for picking up objects which are too small to be handled

Triple beams are used to measure the masses; the reading error is 0.5 g. The mass ranges for balances are between 1g to 610g. Digital balances are used for measuring masses more accurately. The mass ranges for balances are between 0.5g to 600g.

A common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single flame. Used to heat substances for 100 degrees Celcius and higher

Protective eyewear surrounding the eyes. Used to protect them from impact, dust, splashes, heat hazards, etc.

Used for cleaning test tubes. They are located in beakers which are near to each sink.

A measurement tool used for determining the temperature, and also measures in Celsius

A small, shallow dish made of glass or plastic with a loose cover. Used to hold a culture medium in which bacteria, fungi, germs, etc can be grown

Used to grind solid material into smaller pieces

Used to transfer solid substances, looks similar to a spoon

Used to evaporate liquids in a solution

Used to hold small quantaties of liquids or to cover an evaporating dish to prevent splattering

Used to heat specific substances to remove water and then dry them

Usually placed between the bunsen burner and another equipment piece

Properties of Matter

Color (e.g, red, blue...)

Texture (e.g, soft, smooth...)

State of Matter (solid, liquid or gas)

Hardness (hard or soft)

Strength (weak or strong)

Temperature (hot or cold)

Odor (does it emit a smell)

Density (how dense is it)

Viscosity (depends on the speed of the flowing liquid)

Flammability (how easily does it catch on fire)

Three Kinds of Matter

Elements

Substances that cannot be broken down or made from any other substances. Always mentioned in the periodic table (e.g, oxygen, sulfur, lead, gold)

Compounds

A substance made from two or more elements which are chemically combined together

Mixtures

A substance made of two or more other substances which are not chemically combined

Homogeneous

These mixtures are not easy to tell the differences between the substances in them, and they are really difficult to seperate. They are also referred to as solutions.

Hetrogeneous

These mixtures are easy to tell the differences between the substances in them, and they are easy to seperate.

Solutions

Solute - a solid substance which is dissolvable in liquid

Solvent - the liquid that will dissolve that solid substance

Solution - a mixture which has the solute already dissolved in the solvent

Parts of an Atom

Nucleus - the center of the atom which consists of protons and neutrons

Orbitals/Shells - areas around the nucleus which contains electrons that circulate around it

Subatomic Particles

Protons - has a positive charge, found in the nucleus, and weighing a specific amount

Neutrons - has a neutral charge, also found in the nucleus, and weighing a specific amount

Electrons - has a negative charge, found circulating the nucleus through shells, and does not weigh a specific amount

Valence electrons - the outermost electrons in the outermost/largest shell

Periodic Table

Atomic symbol - abbreviations which are used for elements in the periodic table (e.g, zinc = Zn)

Atomic number - represents the number of protons, and also the number of electrons in a neutral atom. Since each atoms have different amounts of protons, the atomic number is used to order the elements. (e.g, chromium = 24)

Atomic mass - indicates the total number of protons and neutrons (e.g, flourine; 10 neutrons + 9 protons = 19 (atomic number))

Ions

Anions = negative ion

Cations = positive ion

Charged atoms or molecules

Ionic Compounds

Ionic compunds will result when nonmetals take electrons from metals

Metals lose electrons to form positive ions as a result

Non-metals gain electrons to form into negative ions as a result

Polyatomic Compounds

Polyatomics are groups of atoms that are stable and have a net charge

Molecular Compounds

A type of compound formed when two or more atoms of different elements share electrons

Usually formed between 2 or more nonmetals; also referred to as covalent compounds

Acids

Compounds which dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions in solution

Properties

Tastes soury

Reacts with some metals to produce hydrogen

pH of less than 7

Indicators

Blue litmus turns red

Pink pheno turns into no color

Neutral blue bromothymol turns into yellow

Orange methyl turns red

Bases

Compounds which dissolves in water to porduce hydroxide ions in solution

Properties

Tastes bittery

Feels slippery and soapy

pH of more than 7

Indicators

Red litmus turns blue

The colorless pheno turns pink

Blue bromothymol turns blue

Orange methyl turns in a yellow-orange color

Cabbage juice turns in a blue-green color

pH scale

The pH scale is a measurement scale used to determine how acidic or basic a solution is

The pH scale also measures how many hydrogen or hydroxide ions are there in the solution

An acidic solution has a low pH (typically below 7)

A basic solution has a high pH (typically above 7)

A neutral solution has a pH of around 7 (e.g, pure water)

Indicators are chemicals that turn into different colors when added to an acid or base

Common Indicators

Problem/Question/Purpose

When we develop a specific question or problem, we can solve it using experimentation to see the outcome.

Observation/Research

We make our observations and research our topic based on the experiment.

Hypothesis

Predict an answer to your problem or question. A hypothesis is an educated guess about the independent and dependent variables.

Independent Variable

A factor that can be controlled or changed during an experiment. Valid experiments have only one independent variable.

Dependent Variable

A factor that might be changed as a result of the independent variable changes. The dependent variable, however, must be measured.

Procedure

Develop and follow the desired procedure.

Materials

Include a detailed materials list.

Collect & Analyze Results

Change the procedure when needed. Confirm the outcome by retesting. Record your outcome using graphs, tables, photos, etc.

Conclusion

Using from what you experienced from your outcome, include your statement on whether it accepts the hypothesis or rejects it. Use recommendations to further improve your experiment and to study more about it.