Introduction to Anthropology, Psychology, and Sociology

The study of humans, including their origins; behaviors; and physical, social and cultural development.Studies attitudes, values, beliefs, and norms within a culture

Formal process that structures social researchSteps to follow when conducting research to investigate a questionSTEP 1 : Question Create a research with questions that can be answered throughout your investigationSTEP 2 : FocusTakes notes about what you already know, and research what has been previously learnedSTEP 3 : Formulate a HypothesisTurn your question(s) into (a) hypothesisSTEP 4 : Collect Your DataUse various methods that will provide the most relevant informationSTEP 5 : Assemble and Analyze DataOrganize your data into charts, graphs, or another format that best communicates your main ideasSTEP 6 : Stop and CheckHave you collected enough data to confirm research hypothesisSTEP 7 : Present ResultsDraw conclusions, identify limitations, make recommendationsSTEP 8 : Reflection What went well? What would you make done differently?

Key Terms.......BipedalismTrait of habitually walking on two legsWalking on two legsCulturally definedCreated or shaped by a cultureCulturally ConstructedCreated or shaped by cultureCultureThe total system of ideas, values,behaviors, and attitudes of a society commonly shared by most membersAll learned behaviours, beliefs, attitudes, values and ideals of a particular society or populationEthnicallyTo so no harm, cannot manipulate data, respect the researchEthnocentricBelieving that one's own culture is superior to all othersEthnographyThe written account of a cultureIn depth description of a particular cultureinfield work done through observationRely on informant or teacher who explains the meaning of event and helps ethnographer integrate into the communityEthnologyThe study of the origins and cultures of different races and peoplesFossilsPreserved remains of biological matterHomininA human or human ancestorHominidA member of a group of primates that includes orangutans, gorillas, chimps, and humansHypothesisA tentative assumption made from known facts as the basis for investigationInformantA reliable and knowledgeable person who provides specific information to an anthropologist studying his or her communityKinshipThe relationship between two or more people that is based on common ancestry, marriage or adoption ObjectiveType of conclusions based on facts and data and uninfluenced by personal perspective, prejudices, or emotionsParticipant observationThe careful watching or a group, in some cases living with its members and participating in their cultureRadio metric datingA process that is used to determine the age of an object, based on measuring the amount of the radioactive material it hasReflextivityThe practice of reflecting on your own world view, biases, and impact on the culture you are studyingSubcultureA small group within a larger group who shares a common system of values, beliefs, attitudes, behaviours, and life styles distinct from those of the larger groupSubjectiveType of conclusions shaped by a person's cultural and personal perspective, feelings, and beliefs.

1809-1882A British scientistperhaps the worlds most famous biologistHe developed the theory of Evolution (gradual change over many generations)This theory revolutionized contemporary thinkingbegan his research on a round-the-world voyage on the H.M.S Beagle

A gradual change over many generations.

1744-1829Was a French ZoologistHe developed a number of theories about how animal species are developedHis theories stated that complex animal forms , such as whales and elephants were developed over time from simple ones, such as worms and insects.

Complex animal forms, such as whales and elephants, were developed over time from simple ones.

1822-1884Considered to be the founder of modern genetics (the study of heredity in plants and animalsMendel experimented with a variety of flowers and plants in order to gain a better understanding of the nature of species He concluded that characteristics are passed from generation to generation by genes, or hereditary factorsHalf of these genes come from one parent and half from the otherestablishes the laws of heredity

Characteristics are passed from generation to generation by genes, or hereditary factors, and half of these genes came form one parent and half from the other

The study of human ancestors based on evidence from the distant evolutionary pasthuman-like ancestors together with living humans called hominins

Studies/ examines human skeletal remains for law enforcement agencies.Determines the identity of unidentified bonesSent out after mass disasters, wars, homicides, suicides, and or accidental deaths occur

Study the anatomy and behaviours of primatesBranch of zoology dealing with primatesInvestigate what makes us similar to and different from other primates

Studies/ analyze material and human remains left by ancient cultureCreates ideas on how our ancestors once lived

Studies languagesUse of documents, existing research or tape recorded interviews to study different thingsStudy the changes in language over timeHow different languages may be relatedMeaning language has for the people who speak it

Study and compare of past and contemporary culturesInterested in knowing about......Cultural beliefs : practices and patterns of thought and behaviours.. i.e: marriage customs, family, relationships, politics, religion, musicoften gather info through interview or observation and published research

Ethology ( the comparative study of biology of behaviour in animals)

His work on imprinting birdsAlso studying...Human aggression and violence animal studies led Lorenz to conclude that violence was partly instinctive , left over from primitive times when hunting for food was necessary for survival

Violence was partly instinctive; but, could be changed into constructive behaviourLeft over from primitive times when hunting was necessary for survival

Louis, Mary, and Richard

Reconstructed ancient civilizations dating from 100 00 to 2 million years agouncovered two of anthropology's greatest finds AustralopithicusHomo Habilis

Studied Chimpanzees

Recorded and documented information that has never yet been documentedLived among chimpanzeesRecorded/ Documented behaviours, traits, patterns and relationships of the chimpanzees

Discovered that chimps had tools : retrieving termitesDiscovered chimpanzees NOT strictly vegetarianDiscovered highly developed social structures within chimpanzee tribes....An alpha male wins supremacy over the other males : aggression and strengthAlpha male : rite to mate with any/ every femaleOther males are not aloud to mate while alpha is in chargeold/overthrown males: treated as a respected grandparentInsight to what the human kingdom might have been like a million years agoAncestors vegetarian: until they learned to cooperate and hunt togetherShe gained the trust of the chimpanzee tribe

Her research has given valuable insight into the human kingdom and provided a window into the ancient past.

Studied orangutansMet Louis Leaky on collage campus

Studied.......Behaviour and social structure of the orangutans

Discovered orangutans are vegetarians who rarely killed one of their own for meatHave highly developed social structureAdded knowledge: towards early humansOrangutans, chimpanzees : bear much in common with our early ancestorsSimilar to Goodall's research

Studied.... Mountain GorillasMet Louis Leaky in 1966First trip to Africa under Louis Leaky in 1967

Learned to imitate the gorillas to gain their trustBelieved that gorillas shared much in common with our earliest ancestorsObserved gorillas displaying highly structured social systems, as well as affection

Protected gorillasMurdered in 1985 by poachers while protesting for the protection of the gorillaspopularized by the movie "Gorillas in the Mist"

Known as...... The man found within the ice

Found.....Otz Vally ( between Austria and Italy)Approximately 5100-5350 years old Body presented along with clothes, tools, ect.

Gives an insight to diet, climate, clothes, tools, and weapons of our early ancestors that walked the earth.

*The study of human behaviour, including, individuals, groups , and societies*Looks at society as a whole (not the individual)what are the shared values of a whole societyin depth parts of a culture (teenagers, elders, young adults)studies : perspective, number or group, backed up by facts, theories, and statistics

Key terms......Social NormsSocial expectations that guide people's behaviorsFolkwaysInformal practices, based on tradition or accepted group behaviorMoresNorms involving moral or ethical judgments... some so important made in laws

Freedom of thought and expression important to be individualsSame time, society needs people to conform to social norms in order to functionNeed balance between two

Set of expected behaviors and beliefs related to the part one plays in society

Behavior that differs from social norms of the group and is judged as wrong by members of that group

Based on brain function or genetics

Looks at early experiences : i.e. children. Criminals learned to think and act in certain ways and were rewarded for deviant behavior

It's a learned response due to the environment

Some people are encouraged to achieve but do not have the tools to succeed, so they use deviant ways to reach their goals

People learn deviant behavior from people that they know really well

People display deviant behaviour if they experience as absence of social control and if the rewards for such behavior are more certain than the punishment

Looks at how definitions define people in certain ways and how people react to that label

Popularizes body image

Availability of resources influences who does what in a society

Provide a set of guidelines on what is acceptable within a culture, for both roles and expression of identity

Determines what people learn, which then informs who they "should be"

Laws and customs determine what people should or should not do, some roles and expressions of identity are controlled by law

Labour and power are an expression of who has more value in societyAn imbalance in labour/power leads to a "Master-Servant" like scenario whereas a balance in labour/power leads to an equilateral

Agents of SocializationPeople and institutions that shape an individual's social developmentAnticipatory SocializationThe process of learning how to plan the way to behave in the new situationBureaucracyA large administration that pursues a wide variety of goalsEmpiracleBase on facts, statistics, and dataFeralUnwanted child deserted at a young age and raised by animalsFunctional Differentiation Divisions that are created to help deal with a complex environment; these divisions operate independently but are connected to one anotherIsolateA child raised in near isolation within a human householdMacrosociologyAn approach to sociology that analyze social systems on a larger scaleMicrosociologyThe study of small groups and individuals within a societyNormsExpectations about how people should behavePositivismThe application of the scientific method to obtain quantifiable data in order to understand societyPrimary GroupA set of people with whom an individual has strong emotional and personal connectionsPrimary SocializationIn the process of learning the basic skills needed to survive in societyRationalizationSocial actions motivated by efficiency or benefit, not custom or emotionResocializationThe process by which negative behavior is turned into society acceptable behaviorRoleExpected behavior of a person in a particular social positionSecondary Socialization The process of learning how to behave appropriately in group situationsSocial InfluenceEffect of other people on a person's thought and actionsSocialization Continuing process where an individual learns appropriate behavioral patterns, skills, and values for his/her social worldSurveySet of questions used on a sample of the population study about opinions, values, or actionsValuesShared ideas and standards that are considered acceptable and binding

Acting CrowdA group of people fueled by a single purpose or goalAltruismPrinciple of unselfish regard for the needs and interests of othersCasual CrowdA group of people in the same time but who do not have a common goalCensusOfficial periodic count of a population including, such information as sex, age, education, and occupationChaperoneOlder or married women who accompanies or supervises young unmarried women on social occasionsClassismA systemic or personal actions that discriminate against persons according to their social socio-economic level, which leads to human needs being unmetComplianceSocial behavior by an individual that may be contrary to his/her beliefs but is exhibited nonetheless in order to achieve rewards and avoid punishmentConformityThe process by which one changes one's thoughts, feelings, and behavior to meet the expectation of a group or authority figuresConventional CrowdA large group of people gathered for a clear purpose who behave according to expectationDehumanizeTo deprive people of their human qualities; to degrade or deny the humanity of another personDemographyThe study of the structure and development of human populationDifferential AssociationThe theory that individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior through interaction with othersDiscriminationThe act of treating groups or individuals unfairly based on their race, gender, or other common characteristic; can be overt or systemicDyadA group consisting of two members\Expressive CrowdA large number of people at an event who display emotion or excitmentGroupthinkThe effects of collective pressure on the decision-making abilities of individual members of a groupHomophilyThe tendency to associate with those who are similar to usInformal groupA less intimate gathering of people in which member interaction is not governed by explicit rulesIslamaphobiaPrejudice against and fear of Islamic beliefs and MuslmsMass HysteriaThe widespread irrational reaction to precieved dangerMobA disorderly crowd of peopleObedienceThe act or habit of doing what one is told or submitting to authorityPanicA highly emotional and irrational response on the part of an individual or a group to a dangerous or harmful social eventPrejudiceAn individual judgment about or active hostility toward another social groupProsocial BehaviorA form of altruism in which individual or groups demonstrate empathy toward and car for the welfare of others without themselvesRacismErroneous judgment,assumptions, opinions, or actions, toward a person or group, based on the belief that one race is superior to anotherReview of LiteratureA search for an examination of credible, reputable studies conductible by othersRiotCivil Disorder stemming from a social grievance, caused by disorganized crowd exhibiting agression, who may turn to acts of violence, vandalism, and destruction of propertySanctionInformal or formal penalty or reward to ensure conformity within a groupScapegoat A specific person or group of people who become the target of hatred or blame for the hardships of othersSecondary GroupA large impersonal gathering of people in which member' roles are measured by their contributions to a common goal or purposeSexismAttitudes or behaviors based on predetermined ideas of sexual roles that discriminate against others because of their sexSmart Mobs (flash mobs)A large group of strangers who use electronic media to organize and stage a surprise public gatheringsSocial Identity (sociology) The way you define yourself to the world and to yourselfSocial RoleExpectations attached to particular social positionsSolidarityThe ties that unite members of a groupStereotypeAn exaggerated view or judgment made about a group or class of peopleThresholdA level or point at which something would or would not happen; a tipping pointUpstanderA person who takes action, particularly when the easiest or most acceptable course is to do nothing, when the believe something is rightVirtual CommunityA group of individuals who communicate online

EthnocentrismThe strong tendency to view other races or cultural groups in terms of the standards of one's own race or group.The belief that one's own ethnic group or culture is superiorXenophobiaExcessive or unreasoning fear or hatred of foreign people or thingsIntergrationThe abolition of racial separation or segregation, esp. as occurring in the United States (cultures blended to become one)Separatism The separation of a political, religious. or racial group from a larger group to which it had belongedPluralismA national policy favoring the coexistence of a variety of cultural, ethnic, or religious groups (cultural mosaic) RacismThe theory or opinion that a certain race or races of people usually one's own, are superior to others because of certain inborn characteristics PrejudiceAn opinion, judgment, preference, or conception formed without knowing or examining facts (the thought)UnequalNot equal, as two or more persons, things, or numbersExpulsionAn act or instance of expelling or forcing out, ot the state of being explelledAnnhiliationTo destroy completely ; reduce to ruinGenocideThe intentional attempt to exterminate all members of a certain race, nationality, or ethnic groupSegregatedPracticing or characterized by segregation, especially racial or ethnic segregation (residential schools)

x x chromosomes (female)x y chromosomes (male)

GenitaliaSex-linked-features Biological

RolesExpectationsImage and appearance

Symbols connected to genderConcepts of gender ( what it means to be male or female)Relative values between genders (power relationships)Patterns of behaviour , and appropriate actives

A set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviours are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based on their actual or precieved sex :The way someone looksThe things someone doesThe things someone saysWho someone spends times with(stereotypes)(social assumptions)

One's personal experience of one's own gender. This is generally described as one's private sense of being a man or a woman, consisting primarily of the acceptance of membership into a category of male or female, and into the following identities:HeterosexualHomosexualInter-sexed (having both sexual characteristics)Transgender (having a different gender identity from the physically assigned sex)

ClothingSymbolsClassifications of "male" and "female" characteristics/rolesRelative values of genders (how are they valued when compared with each other)What behaviours are expected or acceptable

Involves assult or inflicting physical harm

Occurs when an adult , the sibling or peer touches a child sexually or inappropriately

The failure to provide physical or emotional necessities of life

May include repeatedly critizing child or subjecting the child to an unhappy or disturbing enviroment

To study how social structure functions serve the needs of societyBelieves every structure in society has a vital function (the whole is made up of parts such as family, economy, religion)Society seeks stability (after every upheaval society will return to a normal stable or normal state)Most aspects of society contribute to its wellbeing/survival (families contribute by reproducing and taking care of its members)Society works in a logical manner to protect most of its members (makes laws and punishes those that break them)

To study how power forms the basis of the relationships between different groups and creates conflictBelieves society expirences inconsistency and change everywhere (i.e. technology is important - need it to learn to get ahead- but high tech is not accessible to all therefore poor cannot get ahead)All societies involve control and coercion of some members by others (some people have power over others - and have the ability to constrain or limit those with less power)

To examine conflicts created by genderIs an extension of Feminism that aims to understand the nature of gender inequalityExamines social role, experience, and interestsBelieve that men have held power in society unjustifiably and that women's interests must be promotedBranch of conflict theoryDifferences in opportunity (jobs,sports, advertisment)Research based on two premises;Shouls focus on the condition of women in societyMust be grounded on the assumption that women generally experience subordination

Studies human interaction at the micro levelThis approach emphasizes the individual living within a larger society-----------------------------------------------------To study the individual's social role and peace within a wider society and how people create their world through social interactionsTo examine how a physical environment and social structures determine individual behaviorBelieve people have unique interpretations of symbols based on meanings they learn from othersPeople base their interaction with others on their interpretation of symbols (i.e. Musical groups learn that people don't like the music they hear or the performance if boos are heard) ---------------------------------------------------TheoryThe individual is at the center of understanding society, since social values and roles are formed by individual interpretationThe individual creates a sense of self by the reactions of othersSocial life depends on our ability to imagine ourselves in our social roles but also the ability to see ourselves reflected in experiences of those around usBehaviour of others in a society is deeply rooted in our response and reactions to it*influencing the way an individual may...AppearActSpeakRespond}-------------->This dependent relationship is what allows a society to function smoothly----------------------------------------------Does NOT focus on social systemFocusThe way that individuals, through their interpretations of social systems and behaviours negotiation with others, give meaning to social interaction

A guide for the major life stages through which many people pass and the possible connections to an emergent social identity for individuals.

Establishing one's independence as an individual and setting life directionPlanning and obtaining an appropriate educationEstablishing one's social class and statusDeveloping love relationships in connection to one's identityAcknowledging cultural traditions of the family

Determining social and gender rolesFurther establishing social class and statusDeveloping conflict -resolution strategiesDeciding on parenthoodTeaching cultural Traditions of one's family to spouse

Fully integrating gender roles and expectations of parenthoodActing as the primary agent of socialization for childrenPassing along cultural traditions to offspringConfirming social class and statusIntegrating important agents of socialization ( for example, school, religion)

Further integrating agents of socialization (for example peer groups)Establishing balance of autonomy and control for adolescentsCoping with strong social influences on the family (for example, media)Ensuring cultural traditions are maintained by all members of the family

Launching grown children (sometimes relaunching them more than once)Incorporating new members through social institutions such as marriageMaintaining cultural traditions of the family while expanding traditions to include new membersAgingand possibly developing alienation between older and younger generations

Adjusting to retirement and possible changes in social status and classMaintaining love, sex, and marital relationshipsReintegrating important agents of socialization (for example, religion)Passing along cultural traditions to future generations.

Life stages is a key determinant of social roles and identitiesSociologists assume that individuals will pass through different stages in their life and while doing so. The individuals are meant to acomplish certiain developmental tasks***Stages of the life cycle refer to developing social skills and abilities that form your behaviour in society***

Takes a wide perspective and is concerned with studying society as a wholeMacrosociologists analyze social systems and populations on a much larger scaleExamine larger social institutions that individuals belonging to, such as a country or a place of worshipExampleA macrosociologist studying a religion would try to learn a great deal about religious worship as a large structure or institution in society.

Concerned with the role and interactions an individual or small group of people may have in societyMicrosociologists are interested in understanding the bases of social action and interaction among individual members and their place in societyExampleA microsociologist would study a religious worship by looking at role and beiefs of a single worshipper or small group of worshippers in a religion

Allows a person to interact with a number of people in a variety of different situationsThe greater the number of interactions, the more a person is able to develop his or her approach to social interactions or social identity

It is important to acknowledge the elements that work together to establish identity

GenderCultureSocial ClassAge *Aide in formation of social identity*

The process by which people learn from other people how to think, feel and act, along with the knowledge and skills needed to participate in society

In our everyday relationships with people we learn different knowledge and skills, When we start to use these skills and knowledge ourselves this is called internalization .

(Macrosociology)Sees primary socialization as the means whereby children are integrated into society, coming to take their allotted role and learning to fulfill socially necessary functionschildren are viewed as a "blank slate"survival of society

(Microsociology)Is more interest in the process of socialization then the result. "how does internalization happen?"Cooley's the Looking Glass Self :"I am not what I think I am; I am not what you think I am; I am what I think you think I am"ExplanationCooley is talking about the process of developing The SelfThis is done in three stages:The imagination of our appearance to the other personHow we imagine the person judges our appearanceHow we feel about the other person's judgment (as we have imagined it)

The sources we use to learn about society and ourselvesAgents of SocializationFamilyPeersMediaSchoolsReligious GroupsVoluntary Associations

Prejudice and the willingness to discriminate are attitudes that are learnedThe learning of prejudice begins in early childhoodPrejudice parents may prevent their children from associating with groups that are viewed as inferiorwhere the children are NOT allowed to have positive experiences with these groups and only hear of negative opinions (that of their parents)Teachings may be passed down from generation to generation

Lack of personal experiences can cause people to make incorrect assumptions about othersCaused by lack of educationWhen we refuse to learn about others, we prejudice our thoughts because we are incapable of seeing all sides of a situation--- Thus we discriminate against the unknown

People being to blames others for their personal frustrationIt is easier for an individual to put the blame on someone else. Using the other person as a "scapegoat", rather then to blame themselvesleading to prejudice and to discrimination

Rapid social change increases prejudice and discriminationWhenever a country experiences economic hardship, some citizens assume-incorrectly-that immigration is responsibleunemployed people believe their jobs have been taken by newcomers.Other believe that an influx of people strains our social and health services and contributes to the country's deficit.These false assumptions may lead some people to resent immigrants, which in turn leads to prejudice and discrimination

To give themselves a competitive edge, a dominant group may try to exploit another less powerful group in order to control these resources(To justify this to exploit another group, the dominant group may choose to see the group they are exploiting as inferior)This opens the door to prejudice and discrimination

1820-1920British philosopher/sociologistInfluential figure during the Victorian era (1837-1901)Supported Darwin's evolutionary theoryApplied and compared Darwin's theory to Spencer's study of societyApplied the notion of natural selection to societyKnown as what he called "survival of the fittest"

The fittest people in society should survive and flourish while the weak (or unfit) wither deserve to live in unfortunate circumstances or be allowed to dieExampleUnder social Darwinism, the poor elderly or disabled should not receive any financial assistance since they aren't fit enough to survive on their own.

Used to justify colonialism and slaveryPeople claimed that because white people were superior to to other races and cultures --> that they were justified in taking over other countries or enslaving peopleConnected to concepts of EugenicsA movement that advocated for the "improvement" of the species by either selective breeding or the sterilization or killing of "undesirable" humansThis concept was also used in Canada by Helen Macmurphy She led the national council of women to endorse sterilization as means of preventing mothers from "filling cradles with degenerate babies"Alberta sexual sterilization act was passed in 1928---> Led to the creation of a eugenics board---> Board had the power to order the sterilization of individuals---> Between 1929 and 1972 ---> 2822 individuals were sterilized

1914-2000An economist who, through study of a poor Boston neighborhood in the 1930'sCreated the model for urban ethnography and set the standard for this methodology in sociology Known as a pioneer in participant observation--------------------------------------

For more than three and a half years in the 1930's, Whyte lived in a poor Boston neighborhood ---> Inhabited by 1st and 2nd generation Italian immigrants the neighborhood ---> High crime rates, considered dangerous refereed to as a slumWhile living in there (Cornerville) whyte ---> observed/ recorded tensions between different groups from withing the neighborhoodTwo Groups Studied -->"Corner Boys" and "College Boys"Corner boysHung out on the street corners and around shopsCollege BoysWanted an had means to get as educationAmbitions to get out of the slumsEnjoyed the position of privilegeViewed the Corner Boys negatively-----------------------------------------------Whyte was more interested in the Corner Boys and their relationship to other groupsHe was able to peer into their daily lives and make sense if their worldIn his study Cornerville, Whyte demonstrated that a poor community had the capability to be socially organizedHis research changed the was societies could be and are studied Revolutionized the way sociologists conduct their research in the filr and how sociology is studied today

1916- 1999One of the most noted scholars on Indian sociology in the 20th centuryHis work focused on the Caste system in India-----------------------------------------Caste SystemA complex social system that organizes people in social classes that determine status, occupation, culture, marriage partners, and political power Caste-based discrimination is outlawed by Indian constitution, Caste-based barriers still exist in rural communities

His work challenged colonial and western assumptions about Indian societyHis field work proved that the Caste System was a fluid and dynamic social institution that had a tremendous imapct on societyStudied the importance of Caste in the electoral Process as democracy developed in India, moving researches away from classical texts and into contemporary world they were studyingEncouraged his students to look a society in raw, to get out into villages, hospitals and trade unionsDeveloped new ways of understanding Indian society

1864-1920German scholarBelieved that social life is rife with examples of conflict and cohesion

Social actions motivated by efficiency or benefit, rather than morality, custom, or emotionAccording to Weber, Rationalization helps society to function more efficentlyThought that people could be liberated through bureaucracy rather then revolutionEnvisioned a society in which the bureaucracies would improve social problems--------------------------------------------Weber's idea of a bureaucracy VS. sociological bureaucracyWeberAn organization where people are given specialized tasks and where each role is supervised in hierarchyA person holds a job based on his or her competencePeople are treated impersonally so that everyone is treated the sameSociologyA form of administration that is found in organizations pursuing a ide variety of goals

Canadian Civil ServiceWeber believed , social inequalities and disparities could not be explained in only economical terms as suggested by MarxGovernment bureaucracies could better manage these resources by ensuring that all essential social services, such as education, would be available to allBureaucracies could theoretically lessen the tensions in society and potentially eliminate existing inequality

Studied relationships between, the individual and society in great depthBelieved, that the two are interconnected and their functions cannot be separated (influence on another constantly)Believed, the constant interaction with members of one's primary group is crucial to developing a social identityThe individual becomes a reflection and representative for the primary group

The way in which the individual's sense of self is mirrored and reflected by othersExample ---> An AvatarPeople create an avatar , a customized symbol, to represent themselves onlineThis symbol can represent what someone actually looks like as well as represent how a person would like to be seen by others

One of the most widely known anthropologists who studied cultural anthropologyHer findings supported that - nurture rather than nature - largely determines human behaviour---------------------------------------------------------One of Mead's studies involved comparing gender riles across three different cultures.Here her findings were revolutionaryShe concluded that most of the personality traits we associate with "masculinity" and "femininity" are the result of early learning , not heredity

Culture is the learned behaviours, beliefs, attitudes, values and ideals of a particular society or population

There has been an ongoing debate about the factors that influence human behaviours, attitudes, beliefs and other factors associated with culture.This debate is called that Nature-Nurture Debate---------------------------At one time, it was believed that inherited characteristics , or "nature" directed all human behaviour (i.e. people behaved a certain way because they inherited that behaviour from their parentsAs anthropology studies evolved, people began to believe that culture is based, not on inherited characteristics, but on the way people learn to adapt to their environment in order to survive. In other words culture was a result of "nurture"

Individual cultures can vary greatly, but all cultures share some common characteristics--------------------------------------------Culture is learnedParent teaches a child --> beliefs, values, traditionsCulture is shared (have subcultures) TeenagersIndividual heritage groupCulture defines natureHow things are done, best practicesCulture shapes how e perceive and understand the world Personal valuesCulture has patternsTrends , fashion trends

Source : Solomon AschInfluence on Conformity : Larger groups tend to have higher rates of conformity; however, that rate does not change much after groups reach four or five members

Source: Muzafer Sherif, Solomon Asch, Philip ZimbardoInfluence on Conformity: When everyone in a group appears to agree, participate conformity is high, Even one person voicing disagreement decreases the conformity of participants

Source: Muzafer Sherif, Solomon AschInfluence on Conformity: When participants are able to give answers privately, conformity is decreased

Source: Solomon Asch, Phillip ZimbardoInfluence on Conformity: Those with lower self-esteem are more likely to conform because they want to belong. Conversely, participants are less likely to conform when they are confident in themselves or their abilities

Source: Muzafer Sherif, Solomon Asch Influence on Conformity: When a task is difficult or ambiguous participants look to each others in the group for cues as to how to react, assuming the others will know what to do. More difficult the task, the greater the conformity

Source: Solomon AschInfluence on Conformity: If a group member is knowledgeable, as a teacher or has a high status , such as a workplace superior , other participants are likely to conform to that person's views. There is also higher conformity to a group that has high status

The various factors that affect the individual will conform

*** Changes and grows along with the individual throughout his or her life and is influenced by life experiences***Life stages is a key determinant of social roles and identitiesSociologists assume that individuals will pass through different stages in their life and while doing so. The individuals are meant to accomplish certain developmental tasks***Stages of the life cycle refer to developing social skills and abilities that form your behavior in society***

The study of the human mind, mental states, and human developmentThe purpose of psychology is to describe thinking and behavior, look at the relationships between them and try to explain the causes for them. A psychologist's intention is to understand, predict and/or influence behavior---------------------------------------------------------------------Psychologists seek .....to understand the brain and mind, and how is affects and directs human behaviour.Like other social sciences disciplines, insights gained from the efforts of early theorists and researchers contributes to and refines how we understand the human mind and behaviour Being able to describe how people feel, think, and act has been the mission for psychologists since the 19th century

Key Terms...Analytical PsychologyA branch of psychology founded by Carl Jung, based on the idea that balancing a person's psyche would allow that person to reach his or her full potentialArchetypesUniversal symbols that tend to reappear over time; includes models of people, behaviours, and personalitiesCerebrumThe largest and most developed portion of the brain, which is responsible for controlling memory, understanding, and logicClassical ConditioningA type of learning where a once neutral stimulus comes to produce a particular response after pairings with a conditioned stimulusClient-Centered Therapy A humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers in which the client plays an active roleCognitionThe mental processes in the brain associated with thinking, knowing, and rememberingCollective Unconscious The shared, inherited pool of memories from our ancestorsConditioned ResponseThe learned response to previously neutral stimulusConditioned Stimulus An originally neutral stimulus that comes to trigger a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulusConscious Information that we are always aware of; our conscious mind preforms the thinking when we take in new informationCorrelationA measure that indicates a relationship between two factors but does not indicate causation; in positive correlation, one variable goes up precisely as the other goes up; in a negative correlation, one variable goes up precisely as the other goes downDefense Mechanism The ego's way of distorting reality to deal with anxietyDenialA defense mechanism whereby a person refuses to recognize or acknowledge something that is painfulDisplacementThe shift of an emotion from its original focus to another object,person, or situationEgo Freud's term for the rational part of the mind, which operates on the reality principle ExtinctionIn operant conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response due to a lack of reinforcementFixationThe continued focus on an earlier stage of psychological development due to an unresolved conflict at the oral,anal, or phallic stageFree AssociationA method used in psychoanalysis where a patient relaxes and says whatever comes to mindIdFreud's term for the instinctual part of the mind, which operates on the pleasure principleIdentity CrisisA time in a teenagers life filled with extreme self-consciousness as he or she attempts to test and integrate various rolesLogotherapyA form of psychotherapy that tries to help the patient find the aim and meaning if his or her own life as a human being without accessing the medical aspect of mental healthNeo-FreudiansPsychologists who modified Freud's psychoanalytic theory to include social and cultural aspectsNeuroscientists A scientist who specializes in the study of the human brainNeurotic DisorderA mental disorder involving anxiety and fearOperant ConditioningA type of learning that uses rewards and punishment to achieve a desired behaviourPersonalityAn individuals characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and actingProjectionA defense mechanism whereby a person attributes their own threatening impulses onto someone elsePsychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud's theory that all human behaviour is influenced by early childhood and that childhood and that childhood influence the unconscious mind throughout lifePsychodynamic TheoryAn approach to the therapy that focuses on resolving a patient's conflicted conscious and unconscious feelingsRepressionA process in which unacceptable desires are excluded from consciousness and left to operate in the unconsciousSelf-actualizationReaching one's full potential; occurs only after basic physical and psychological needs are metSuperegoFreud's term for the moral centre of the mindUnconditioned ResponseThe natural response to an unconditioned stimulusUnconditioned StimulusA stimulus that naturally triggers a responseUnconscious Information processing in out mind that we are not aware of; according to Freud, it holds our unacceptable thought, feelings, and memories ; according to Jung, it includes patterns of memories, instincts, and experiences common to all

BehaviourismBranch of Psychology common in the first half of the twentieth century.Based on the belief that psychologists need empirical evidence, obtained through experimentation, to understand and change human behavior.Emphasize importance of observable behaviour and phenomena.Founders: John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F Skinner

Humanism:Developed out of the patient relationship idea of therapy. Humanist psychologists believe that the client should be involved with their own recovery, rather than relying on the therapist's interpretations.Favoured qualitative over quantitative research to understand persons as a whole.Methods of data collection include diary entries, open ended questionnaires and unstructured interviews/observations.Founders: Abraham Maslow, Viktor Frankl, Carl Rogers

Psychoanalysis:Belief that unlocked the unconscious mind is the key to understanding human behaviour and relationshipsAll human behaviour is influenced by early childhood and that childhood experiences influence the unconscious mind throughout lifeId (instinct), ego (reality), superego (morals)Includes defense mechanisms (denial, repression, displacement, etc.)Founders: Sigmund Freud, Karen Horney, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson

Cognitive:Cognition refers to the mental processes in the brain.Cognitive Psychology is the study and application of how the brain learns.Believe in and consider mental states, such as beliefs, motivations, and desires.Founders: Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Albert Bandura, Elizabeth Loftus, Leta Stetter Hollingworth

Ego, superego and idEGO: rational part of the mind, realitySUPEREGO: moral centre of the mindID: instinctual, operates on pleasure principlePsychodynamic Theorist

Founder of feminine psychology, feminist look on Freud’s theoriesHighlights gender biasPromotes new thinkingNeo-FreudianPsychodynamic Theorist

Founded analytical psychologyAnalytical psychology: a branch of psychology based on the idea that balancing a person’s psyche would allow the person to reach their full potentialPersonal and collective unconsciousPersonality types, individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and actingPsychodynamic Theorist

Pavlov’s dogConditioning

Operant conditioningPositive reinforcement (+-), negative reinforcement (--), positive punishment (+-), negative punishment (-+) Behavioural Psychologist

The pyramid lolBasic needs: physiological, safetyPsychological needs: belongingness and love, self-esteemSelf-fulfillment needs: self-actualizationHumanist Psychologist

Logotherapy“What drives you to live?”Finding meaning and using it to continue to exist in even the worst situationsHumanist Psychologist

Client-Centred Therapy (client plays an active role)Focuses on the potential of each person to realize their own growth in self-awareness and self-fulfillmentHumanist Psychologist

Devised the Bobo Doll Experiment in order to prove his theory that people learn from watching others.Children use the actions of adults as a model on how they should act.Cognitive Psychology

Studied false memories and the flexibility/reliability of repressed memories. Devised the lost in the mall experiment to prove her hypothesis. 39 percent of people tested believed the false memory to be real.Cognitive Psychology

Psychosexual stages in development theory, based on observations of how children focus on pleasure as they matureChildren can become fixated (continued focus on earlier stage of psychosocial development due to an unresolved conflict at the oral, anal or phallic stage)IN ORDER: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

Stages of cognitive development theoryThinking ability, how someone thinks/problem solvesIN ORDER: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Stages of psychosocial development theoryNeo-Freudian in terms of child development and understanding of egoBelieved humans developed over a lifetime rather than just childhoodIN ORDER: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. role confusion, generativity vs. stagnation, integrity vs. despair

Proved the belief that women had neither the same cognitive ability nor range of talents as men (and therefore would not achieve anything extraordinary) to be completely wrongStudy: 1000 mens height and weight vs. womens

Rhesus monkey studyAffection vs. nourishmentInfants are dependent on caregivers for more than just physical needs, emotional needs are crucial for attachment

Infant-mother attachment“Strange Situation”Noted how child reacted when caregiver left and how much the child interacted with the stranger in the room with them, and with toys in the room during caregivers absenceTYPES: secure, avoidant, resistant

John Watson attempted to understand the nature of fear exposed a nine month old boy named Albert to a variety of white objects (rabbits and cotton wool)Overtime Albert began to feel a sense of security while playing with white toysTo create fear for little Albert, Watson started making loud noises behind Albert's back while he played specifically with white toys because of these experiences Albert soon began to associate fear with he colour white and furry thingsAlbert did not receive therapy until after this experiment regarding fear

Wenbell Johnson conducted an experiment on 22 orphaned children with normal language developmentHalf were placed in a negative speech therapy group, where they were belittled for each speech errormany suffered negative psychological effectssome actually developed speech problem that carried on throughout their lives

Carey Landis studied hoe facial expression relates to human emotion and whether or not specific expressions where common to everyoneparticipants had black lines drawn on their faces to make changes of expression easier to seeat one point, participants where given a live rat and were told to behead itone-third did so , but because most people had no prior experience, the rats sufferedLandis decapitated the animals of those who refused in the end, the study showed no proof that people have common facial expressions and the rats were killed for no reason

A botched circumcision when he was eight months old resulted in Bruce Reimers penis being burned offPsychologists John Money recommended his parents raise him as female -> "Brenda"Dr.Money claimed gender is a matter of socialization but failed to tell Bruce's mother that this theory had never been provenAfter years of feeling "wrong", Brenda discovered the truth and began to live as "David"He faced psychological issues (depression) and eventually committed suicide

C.R. Schruster and T. Thompson designed an experiment to help understand the effects of drug and alcohol abuseMonkeys and rats were trained to inject with a syringe and left with large stocks of alcohol , morphine, cocaine, codeince, and amphetaminessome monkeys tore hair from their bodies, and broke their own fingers while attempting escapeothers died from drugs

Can be caused by excessive negative stress. Mental illnesses are caused by psychological factors such as early childhood experiences or biological factors such as brain function, disease or genetic predisposition. Some psychologists refer to mental illness as abnormal behaviour behaviour that is out of the ordinary or does not conform to the behaviour of society. But “Normal” behaviour varies widely from person to person and from group to group so : What is abnormal behaviour? Psychologists define behaviour as “abnormal” if it is characterized by one or more of the following: -Irrationality -Personal Suffering -Interpersonal maladjustment (Difficulty with relationships)Additional criteria used in Canada: -Persistent personal unhappiness -Inability to function in society -Antisocial behaviour that harms others -If they pose a threat to themselves/others = kept in custody

Generalized: anxiety with no obvious reason/cause person may not be able to function SYMPTOMS: fast beating heart, fainting, flushed skin Phobias: intense, irrational fear of certain objects or situations interfere with daily life believed to have stemmed from bad experiences OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder): Persistent, unwanted thought that comes from some sort of anxiety Compulsion: the need to perform an act that will relieve the anxiety OBSESSION→ANXIETY→COMPULSION→RELIEF Relief is temporary and the cycle repeats Hysterical Reaction: When emotional conflicts are converted into physical symptoms

Depression:Long lasting and severe mood changes 2 types: Major Depression: Deeply unhappy, finds little enjoyment/pleasures in life Often experiences anxiety, sleeping problems, changes in appetite Suicide attempts Bipolar Affective Disorder (previously Manic Depression): Extreme mood changes Moods are both manic and depressive Manic state marked by confused/aggressive behaviour, unlimited energy & difficulty sleeping Depressive state marked by extreme fatigue, sadness, sense of futility and withdrawal (suicidal thoughts) Schizophrenia: Distortion of reality, social withdrawal and disturbances of thought, perception, motor activity and emotions Several different forms Some withdraw completely, lose interest in the world and become totally apathetic Researchers still looking for cause/cure Recent evidence of a genetic component Drug therapy used in helping schizophrenics lead productive lives Types: Catatonic Schizophrenia: Become physically rigid and mute, holding one position for hoursParanoid Schizophrenia: Delusions and hallucinations False beliefs, often of one’s importance or being persecutedPersonalityAffect people’s ability to function in society/relate to others Often loners, suspicious and mistrustful of othersLie, break laws, feel persecuted and view their behaviour as normal Antisocial Personality: No conscience No remorse/guilt after doing something immoral or criminal Total disregard for the rights and well-being of others Blame others for failures in life and failed relationships Organic Psychosis: physical damage to the brain (disturbance in brain function) Environment / socialization (ex. childhood full of abuse) may play a roleSubstanceHarmful use of substances such as alcohol, tobacco or drugs Leads to significant impairment or distressClassified as “abuse” or “dependence” Interferes with their ability to function in daily lives Dependence: users become addicted, requiring increasing amounts of the substance to achieve desired effect Experience severe withdrawal symptoms if substance not available (ex. physical reactions) Consequences vary (ex. organ/brain damage) Some people more vulnerable biologically, while others come to rely on a substance as a way of coping with problems, fear, anger or pain Dependence can also be result on close association with peers involved in similar substance usage

ConformityGeneral conformity for social approval or to fit inIn group mentalityPsychologists Solomon Asch wanted to understand the nature of conformity on healthy, intelligent people and conducted a series of experiments in the 1950's on this topicHis experiments consisted of six people per groupthey sat around a table and answered seemingly easy questionsonly one out of the six was an actual subjectthe rest were actorsactors were carefully chosenthe group had to make judgments about which line from a set of the three matched the standard line shown.the subject of the experiment was always the last to give a responseAt first everyone in the group gave the correct answer to ensure that there was no suspicion among the subjectHe discovered the people are often influenced by the responses of others.Only 24% percent of the subjects would not give the same answer as the others in the group71 percent gave the same answer, even when they knew the groups answer was not incorrectDiscovered that people are often influenced by the responses of others