Kingdoms & Biodiversity

Eukaryotic & multicellular

Large vacuoles for waste management.

Cell walls structured with cellulose for additional strength.

Contains chloroplasts which allow for chlorophyll.

Stationary beings; unable to move

Vascular

Plants that include a vascular system of xylem and phloem tissues all over their bodies.

Are generally stronger and more fitted to carry water.

Contain three main structures: roots, stems, and leaves.

Examples include flowers, cones, and spores.

Non-vascular

Plants that do not contain a vascular system of tissues.

Are much smaller than vascular plants and can transport water through diffusion and osmosis.

Examples include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.

Asexual:

Fragmentation

Spore formation

Sexual:

Seeds

Essentially the plant embryo.

Angiosperms

For flowering plants

Protected seeds

Pollen is spread via cross pollination or self pollination and a pollen tube is developed as an ovary.

Sperm travels down to fertilize an egg and produce a seed.

Two types of angiosperms:

Monocots (One seed leaf)

Dicots (Two seed leaves)

Gymnosperms

For cone-bearing plants

Naked seeds, but are protected by a maple key-like structure.

Pollen from male cones carried to female cones via wind.

Examples include pine trees and spruce trees.

Fungi were initially classified as plants in the Plantae Kingdom, but were later classified into their own kingdom because fungi lack the photosynthesis process and authentic roots that regular plants have.

Eukaryotic

Heterotrophs (rely on other food sources)

Releases enzymes and absorbs nearby nutrients into its cells.

Able to break down and decompose materials such as lumber for humans to further utilize.

Can be either unicellular or multicellular.

Yeast is an example of a unicellular fungi.

Hyphae: The threads that make up the base; not genuine roots.

Mycelium: The stem made out of branching hyphae; also known as the body of the fungus.

Fruiting body: The above-ground structure that produces spore.

Parasitic: Extracts nutrients from living organisms.

Predatory: Trap prey.

Mutualistic: Partner with other organisms in exchange for mutual benefit.

Saprobic: Extracts nutrients from dead organisms.

Can reproduce either sexual or asexually. Classified based off of their reproduction process.

Fungi imperfecti: Diverse with no sexual structures.

Chytrids: Mostly unicellular, aquatic, and its spores have flagella.

Zygospores: Mostly multicellular and terrestrial..

Sac Fungi: Largest group that develops finger-like sacs.

Club fungi: Fruit bodies that are short-living.

Food for humans

Beer, wine, bread, citric acid, cheese, etc.

Mycorrhizae

Provides root expansion and enhanced lifespan for plants.

Decomposition

Able to decompose lignin; the material that makes wood hard. No other substance is able to decompose lignin.

Able to decompose cellulose to glucose, contributing to the carbon cycle.

Medication

Used in penicillin and other antibiotics.

Fun Facts:

Half a mushroom can kill a human.

The stinkhorn can grow by 20cm in just 2-3 hours.

Field mushrooms have been seem with circumferences of 115cm.

The first antibiotic was discovered by accident by Alexander Fleming when he left out a petri dish with fungus killing the bacteria surrounding it.

Many fungi are parasitic with examples of zombie-like ants and snails. Ironically the snails infected with the fungi lived longer than those that were not infected with the parasite.

Eukaryotic & multicellular

Cells do not have cell walls.

Heterotrophs: rely on other sources for their food.

Usually involves an ingestion and digestion process.

Usually able to move for at least one part of their lives.

Usually reproduces sexually with an embryo process.

Methods of classification:

Vertebrates: have a backbone and make up less than 5% of animals.

Invertebrates: do not have a backbone and make up 95% of the animal kingdom.

Animals with a notochord and a dorsal nerve cord are classified into the Chordata phylum.

All animals are comprised of tissues formed by cells.

Sponges are an exception, as they have no tissues.

Cell

Tissue

Organ

Organ system

Organism

Most animals have some form of a balanced body.

Radial symmetry: the animal can be symmetrical a certain amount of times from a given axis point.

Bilateral symmetry: the animal can be split into two equal halves.

Ectoderm (outer layer):

Skin

Nerves

Sensory organs

Mesoderm (middle layer):

Muscles

Blood

Kidneys

Endoderm (inner layer):

Lungs

Liver

Pancreas

Stomach lining

Called a coelom; filled with fluid and contains organ systems.

Coelomates: include a coelom.

Generally stronger, more responsive, and develop more complex organ systems.

Molluscs

Insects

Vertebrates

Acoelomates: do not include a coelom.

Corals

Jellyfish

Flatworms

Division of the body into similar/repetitive sections.

Beneficial for operations and movement.

Motile: able to move.

Sessile: unable to move, remains stationary.

Formerly motile is previous stages of life.

Asexual process using fragmentation or budding.

Sexual process using embryos.

Porifera (Phylum):

Known as some of the first species in the animal kingdom.

Includes sponges with a spongocoel cavity.

Asymmetric with no tissues or organs.

Cnidaria (Phylum):

Aquatic animals living in freshwater and marine environments.

Have specialized cells and bodies are made of a jelly-like substance with epithelium layers.

Includes anemones, coral, sea pens, box jellies, jellyfish, etc.

Echinodermata (Phylum):

Marine animals found on sea beds on ocean depths.

Able to reproduce asexually and regenerate limbs.

Have radial symmetry.

Includes starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, etc.

Platyhelminthes (Phylum):

Invertebrates with flat bodies that can produce either sexually or asexually.

Have bilateral symmetry.

Example are flatworms.

Nematoda (Phylum):

Parasitic and reproduce either sexually or asexually.

Have round bodies with a mouth and anus for an open digestive system.

Example are roundworms.

Annelida (Phylum):

Made of segments.

Have a closed circulatory (blood) system and reproduce either sexually or asexually.

Examples include segmented worms and leeches.

Mollusca (Phylum):

Largest marine phylum category with tongues, mucus glands, and open circulatory (blood) systems.

Examples include cuttlefish, octopi, giant squids, gastropods, clams, oysters, etc.

Arthropoda (Phylum):

Invertebrates with exoskeletons.

Have jointed feet.

Circulatory (blood) system is open and nervous (sensory) system is ladder-like.

Reproduction comprised of fertilization and egg processes.

Example are scorpions.

Chordata (Phylum):

Includes a notochord for structure and movement.

Vertebrata (Subphylum):

Less than five percent of all animal species and includes complex body structures and systems such as spinal chords, brains, and a two-sided digestive system.

Agnatha (Class):

Fish that are jawless and were some of the first-existing vertebrates.

Do not have fins or a stomach.

Reproduction is the external fertilization of eggs.

Examples include lampreys and hagfish.

Osteichthyes (Class):

Fish with jaws and include distinct organs for respiration, excretion, and blood circulation processes.

Include a lateral line running down their body that comprises their sensory organs

Examples include eels, anglerfish, and gars.

Chondrichthyes (Class):

Fish with skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone for more flexibility of the body.

Examples include sharks and skates.

Amphibia (Class):

Animals that are able to split their life between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Reproduce by laying eggs in water; would dry if laid on land.

Usually start out as fish but go through a process called metamorphosis to develop legs and lungs for walking on land and air breathing respectively.

Examples include frogs, salamanders, and caecilians.

Reptilia (Class):

Some of the first land animals.

Cold-blooded; body temperature regulated by the environment rather than internally.

Modified skull for better strength and efficiency.

Examples include turtles, snakes, and lizards.

Aves (Class):

Birds with backbones and feathers.

Warm-blooded; internally moderate their own body temperatures.

Most are able to fly

Some like penguins can swim.

Some like ostriches are bounded to land.

Generally have light and hollow bones allowing for easier flight.

Have bills instead of teeth.

Lay eggs to reproduce.

Example are falcons.

Mammalia (Class):

Tetrapods with hair, teeth, diaphragms, and mammary glands.

Warm blooded; able to internally moderate their own body temperatures.

Reproduction is mostly done live. The process beforehand has placentas providing embryos with nutrition.

Exception 1: Monotremes lay eggs.

Exception 2: Marsupials develop their babies in a pouch.

Example are humans.

A miscellaneous group of eukaryotic organisms that are usually unicellular.

Organisms that are not categorized into plantae, fungi, or animalia are grouped in this kingdom.

Some are multicellular such as algae, but do not form true tissues.

Most reproduce asexually rather than sexually.

Grouped based on their nutrition:

Cercozoa

Amoebas have false feet called pseudopods and is able to cause amoebic dysentery.

Ciliophora

Ciliates have hair-like cilia, allowing them to move through water and transfer food into its gullet.

Zoomastigina

Flagellates have flagella, allowing them to move.

Sporozoans

Parasitic; version called plasmodium causes malaria.

Myxomycota

Plasmodial slime molds are slime-like and contain multiple nuclei.

Acrasiomycota

Cellular slime molds have one nucleus each and ingest bacteria and yeast.

Oomycota

Water molds that are filamentous and sometimes parasitic.

Chrysophyta

Diatoms are the phytoplankton that have rigid walls and are an important food source for marine organisms.

Pyrrophyta

Dinoflagellates have two flagella and are able to produce bioluminescent light.

Euglenozoa

Euglenoids have an eyespot to see light and switch between being an autotroph and heterotroph in the sunlight and dark respectively.

Known as "ancient bacteria", as they were discovered to be found in remote and prehistoric locations.

Derived from the Archaea domain.

Formerly classified with eubacteria as a single kingdom called Monera.

Include features that make them unique from eubacteria.

Cell wall is not made of peptidoglycan.

Fatty acids are linked with ether bonds rather than ester bonds.

Ribosomes are more related to eukaryotes than bacteria.

Can be autotrophs and heterotrophs (either producing their own food or extracting it from another source).

Able to produce methane while lacking oxygen (anaerobic) in a process called methanogenesis.

Example 1: Thermophiles living in areas of extremely high or low temperatures

Example 2: Acidophiles living in areas of pH levels as low as 0.

Example 3: Halophiles living in areas of extreme salt concentration.

The ability to withstand many extreme living conditions makes them useful in biotech applications such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction).

Asexual method: binary fission through fragmentation and septum formation to separate cells. Budding and fragmentation methods are also available.

Sexual method: One cell connects a pilus tube to the other cell to transfer chromosome information.

Speculated after the discovery of the Asgard group of archaebacteria that eukaryotes (like us) are actually descendants of the Archaea domain.

Known as "true bacteria", as this is the category people commonly refer to when they think of bacteria.

Derived from the Bacteria domain.

Can be autotrophs and heterotrophs (either producing their own food or extracting it from another source).

Able to utilize the photosynthesis process and produce oxygen as a byproduct. Example is cyanobacteria.

Generally are mesophiles and live common/moderate conditions.

Asexual method: binary fission through fragmentation and septum formation to separate cells. Budding and fragmentation methods are also available.

Sexual method: One cell connects a pilus tube to the other cell to transfer chromosome information.

Bacteria that have a thick layer of protein and thick outer layer of peptidoglycan will have cells that appear purple during the test.

Bacteria that have a thin layer of protein and a layer of peptidoglycan that is sandwiched between two layers of plasma membrane will have cells that appear light pink during the test.

Not considered as living things.

Reason 1: Cannot reproduce on their own; need hosts to deliver reproduction instructions.

Reason 2: Has no cell structures or features such as membranes or cytoplasm.

Reason 3: Does not react to stimuli or produce cellular respiration.

Considered an infectious material made up of protein and genetic material.

Exponentially smaller than cells and bacteria; measured in nanometers (a billionth of a meter).

Nucleic acid

Capsid

Envelope

Three methods of classifying viruses:

Icosahedral

Envelope

Helical

Complex: icosahedral & helical

By genetic material: DNA or RNA

DNA example: chickenpox

RNA example: coronaviruses

Retroviruses are able to embed their RNA into the host cells DNA to modify the genetic material.

Lytic cycle: infects the host cell with instructions to reproduce more of the virus.

Lysogenic cycle: infects the host cell and embeds its DNA into the chromosomes, where it remains dormant for later activation into the lytic cycle.

Methods of contracting viruses:

Saliva

Insect/animal bites

Bodily fluids (coughing/sneezing)

Skin contact