Organizational
Leadership

Skills Approach

Katz:
Technical, Human
& Conceptional

Technical

Technical Skills are more important at the middle and lower level of management and less important in upper management.

"Individuals at the top level depend on skilled followers to handle technical issues of the
physical operation." p.102

THINGS

Human

"Human skills allow a
leader to assist group members in working cooperatively as a group to achieve common
goals. For Katz, it means being aware of one’s own perspective on issues and, at the same

time, being aware of the perspective of others. Leaders with human skills adapt their own

ideas to those of others. Furthermore, they create an atmosphere of trust where employees

can feel comfortable and secure and where they can feel encouraged to become involved in the planning of things that will affect them." p.102-103

PEOPLE

Conceptional

IDEAS

"Conceptual skills are central to creating a vision and strategic plan for an organization." p.103

Mumford:
Comprehensive
Skills-Based Model

"...the skills approach suggests that many people have the potential for leadership. If people are capable of learning from their experiences, they can acquire leadership." p.105

Competencies

Problem Solving Skills

Social Judgement

Knowledge

Trait Approach

Stogdill's 10 Traits (p.65)
1. drive for responsibility and task completion;
2. vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals;
3. risk taking and originality in problem solving;
4. drive to exercise initiative in social situations;
5. self-confidence and sense of personal identity;
6. willingness to accept consequences of decision and action;
7. readiness to absorb interpersonal stress;
8. willingness to tolerate frustration and delay;
9. ability to influence other people’s behavior; and
10. capacity to structure social interaction systems to the purpose at hand.

MAJOR LEADERSHIP TRAITS
Intelligence
Self-Confidence
Determination
Integrity
Sociability
Table 2.2, p.67

Intelligence

Intelligent... but not TOO intelligent!
"In a study of the relationship between intelligence and perceived leadership in midlevel leaders from multinational companies, Antonakis, House, and Simonton (2017) found that the optimal IQ for perceived leadership appeared to be just above one standard deviation above the mean IQ of the group membership. Their study found a curvilinear relationship between IQ and perceived leadership—that is, as IQ increased, so did perceived leadership to a point, and then the IQ had a negative impact on leadership. Stated another way, it is good for leaders to be intelligent, but if their intelligence scores become too high, the benefits appear to taper off and can become negative." p.69

Self Confidence

"It includes a sense of self-esteem and self-assurance and the belief that one can make a difference. Leadership involves influencing others, and self-confidence allows the leader to feel assured that his or her attempts to influence others are appropriate and right." p.70

Determination

"Determination is the desire to get the job done and includes characteristics such as initiative, persistence, dominance, and drive. People with determination are willing to assert themselves, are proactive, and have the capacity to persevere in the face of obstacles. Being determined includes showing dominance at times and in situations where followers need to be directed." p.71

Integrity

"People who adhere to a strong set of principles and take responsibility for their actions are exhibiting integrity. Leaders with integrity inspire confidence in others because they can be trusted to do what they say they are going to do. They are loyal, dependable, and not deceptive. Basically, integrity makes a leader believable and worthy of our trust." p.72

Sociability

"Sociability is a leader’s inclination to seek out pleasant social relationships. Leaders who show sociability are friendly, outgoing, courteous, tactful, and diplomatic. They are sensitive to others’ needs and show concern for their well-being. Social leaders have good interpersonal skills and create cooperative relationships with their followers." p.73

Strengths Leadership

"The idea behind strengths leadership is that everyone has talents in which they excel or thrive and leaders are able to recognize and capitalize on not only their own strengths but those of their followers as well." p.75

Emotional Intelligence

"...emotional intelligence has to do with our emotions (affective domain) and thinking (cognitive domain), and the interplay between the two. Whereas intelligence is concerned with our ability to learn information and apply it to life tasks, emotional intelligence is concerned with our ability to understand emotions and apply this understanding to life’s tasks. Specifically, emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability to perceive and express emotions, to use emotions to facilitate thinking, to understand and reason with emotions, and to effectively manage emotions within oneself and in relationships with others (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000)." p.76

Focused on the LEADER

"The trait approach is very different from the other approaches discussed in subsequent chapters because it focuses exclusively on the leader, not on the followers or the situation. This makes the trait approach theoretically more straightforward than other approaches. In essence, the trait approach is concerned with what traits leaders exhibit and who has these traits." p.77

Criticism: Can't teach traits
"A final criticism of the trait approach is that it is not a useful approach for training anddevelopment for leadership. Even if definitive traits could be identified, teaching new traitsis not an easy process because traits are not easily changed. For example, it is not reasonableto send managers to a training program to raise their IQ or to train them to becomeextraverted. The point is that traits are largely fixed psychological structures, and this limitsthe value of teaching and leadership training." p.81

Followership

"Leaders need followers, and followers need leaders (Burns, 1978; Heller & Van Til, 1983; Hollander, 1992; Jago, 1982)." p.43

"As Burns (1978) pointed out, discussions of leadership sometimes areviewed as elitist because of the implied power and importance often ascribed to leaders inthe leader–follower relationship. Leaders are not above or better than followers. Leaders andfollowers must be understood in relation to each other (Hollander, 1992) and collectively(Burns, 1978). They are in the leadership relationship together—and are two sides of thesame coin (Rost, 1991)." p.44

Role Based

Relational Based

tied to behaviours rather
than specific roles

"The meaning of followership emerges from the communication between leaders and followers and stresses the interplay between following and leading. Rather than focusing on roles, it focuses on the interpersonal process and one person’s attempt to influence and the other person’s response to these influence attempts." p.440

"The role-based perspective focuses on followers in regard to the typical roles or behaviors they exhibit while occupying a formal or informal position within a hierarchical system." p. 440

Defining
Leadership

Types of
Leadership

authentic leadership, in which the authenticity of leaders and their leadership is emphasized;

spiritual leadership, which focuses on leadership that utilizes values and sense of calling and membership to motivate followers;

servant leadership, which puts the leader in the role of servant, who utilizes “caring principles” to focus on followers’ needs to help these followers become more autonomous, knowledgeable, and like servants themselves;

adaptive leadership, in which leaders encourage followers to adapt by confronting and solving problems, challenges, and changes;

followership, which puts a spotlight on followers and the role followers play in the leadership process

discursive leadership, which posits that leadership is created not so much through leader traits, skills, and behaviors, but through communication practices that are negotiated between leader and follower

Components

a process

"it is not a trait or characteristic that resides in the leader, but rather a transactional event that occurs between the leader and the followers. Process implies that a leader affects and is affected by followers. It emphasizes that leadership is not a linear, one-way event, but rather an interactive event." p.43

involves influence

"It is concerned with how the leader affects followers and the communication that occurs between leaders and followers (Ruben & Gigliotti, 2017)." p.43

"Power is the capacity or potential to influence. People have power when they have the ability to affect others’ beliefs, attitudes, and courses of action. "p.48

in groups

common goals

"Attention to common goals gives leadership an ethical overtone because it stresses the need for leaders to work with followers to achieve selected goals. Stressing mutuality lessens the possibility that leaders might act toward followers in ways that are forced or unethical. It also increases the possibility that leaders and followers will work together toward a common good (Rost, 1991)." p.43

Assigned vs. Emergent
Position, vs. natural leader

"Researchers have found that, in addition to communication behaviors, personality plays arole in leadership emergence. For example, Smith and Foti (1998) found that certainpersonality traits were related to leadership emergence in a sample of 160 male collegestudents. The individuals who were more dominant, more intelligent, and more confidentabout their own performance (general self-efficacy) were more likely to be identified asleaders by other members of their task group. Although it is uncertain whether thesefindings apply to women as well, Smith and Foti suggested that these three traits could beused to identify individuals perceived to be emergent leaders." p.47

GREAT MAN traits
"In the early 20th century, leadership traits werestudied to determine what made certain people great leaders. The theories that weredeveloped were called “great man” theories because they focused on identifying the innatequalities and characteristics possessed by great social, political, and military leaders" p.64

You gotta fit in...
"A unique perspective on leadership emergence is provided by social identity theory (Hogg,2001). From this perspective, leadership emergence is the degree to which a person fits with the identity of the group as a whole. As groups develop over time, a group prototype also develops. Individuals emerge as leaders in the group when they become most like the group prototype. Being similar to the prototype makes leaders attractive to the group and gives them influence with the group." p.47

Leadership vs. Management
"Kotter (1990) argued that they are quite dissimilar (Figure 1.2). The overriding function of management is to provide order and consistency to organizations, whereas the primary function of leadership is to produce change and movement. Management is about seeking order and stability; leadership is about seeking adaptive and constructive change." p.53

"Bennis and Nanus made the distinction very clear in their frequently quoted sentence, “Managers are people who do things right and leaders are people who do the right thing” (p. 221)." p.54

Situational
Leadership

to be an effective leader requires that a person adapt his
or her style to the demands of different situations."

Leadership Style

Directive behaviours

Directive behaviors clarify, often with one-way communication, what is to be done, how it
is to be done, and who is responsible for doing it.

Supportive Behaviours

Supportive behaviors help group
members feel comfortable about themselves, their coworkers, and the situation. Supportive
behaviors involve two-way communication and responses that show social and emotional

support to others. Examples of supportive behaviors include asking for input, solving

problems, praising, sharing information about oneself, and listening.

Development Level
of Followers

Competence

Commitment

The situational approach is constructed around the idea that followers move forward and
backward along the developmental continuum, which represents the relative competence
and commitment of followers. For leaders to be effective, it is essential that they determine where followers are on the developmental continuum and adapt their leadership styles to directly match their followers’ development levels.

The older
followers desired more structure than the younger followers did. In addition, their findings indicated that female and male followers had different preferences for styles of leadership. Female followers expressed a stronger preference for supportive leadership, whereas male followers had a stronger desire for directive leadership.

Adaptive Leadership

"As the name of the approach implies, adaptive leadership is about how leaders encourage
people to adapt—to face and deal with problems, challenges, and changes. Adaptive leadership focuses on the adaptations required of people in response to changing environments. Simply stated, adaptive leaders prepare and encourage people to deal with change."

"Although people often think of adaptive leadership as being leader-centered, it is actually more follower-centered. It focuses primarily on how leaders help others do the work they need to do, in order to adapt to the challenges they face. Generally, adaptive leadership is concerned with how people change and adjust to new circumstances."

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