Inner Workings of the Human Body Systems When Exercising

Digestive System

Functions

Ingestion: taking in food

Mouth/pharynx

Alimentary pathway

Takes in food

Start digestive process

Chemical digestion

Enzymes break down food

Biomolecules begin degradation

Carbohydrates (Cₓ(H2O)ᵧ)

Monosaccharide - (CH2O)x

Simple sugars

Basic carbohydrates

Used in cellular respiration

Essential for exercise

Lipids (CH3(CH2)nCOOH)

Stores energy

Enhance sports performance

Fatty acid chains

Nutrient absorption

Protein (RCH(NH2)COOH)

Amino acid chain

Bonded with peptide

Supports muscles

Form enzymes

Nucleic acid

DNA + RNA

Needed for growth

Formation of bolus

Ball of softened food

Travels down esophagus

Salivary glands

Produces saliva enzymes

Glands

Parotid glands

Sides of face

Submandibular glands

Underneath jawbone

Sublingual glands

Underneath tongue

pH Buffers

Counteract acidity

Prevent tooth decay

Fights bacteria

Salivary amylase (C₉H₁₄N₄O₃)

Breaks down carbohydrates

Forms glucose

Catalyst of hydrolysis

Lubricates passage through esophagus

Softens food

Lingual lipase

Break down triglycerides (C₆H₈O₆)

Forms fatty acids + glycerides (C₁₆H₃₂O₄)

Mechanical Digestion: breaks down food

Teeth

Tear + crush food

Part of musculoskeletal system

Tongue

Pushes food around

Is a muscle

Esophagus

Located near trachea (windpipe)

Epiglottis blocks trachea

Gasses only

Flap of tissue

Prevents food from entering windpipe

Protects the trachea

Bolus travels down the esophagus

Peristalsis

Wavy movements of muscles

Involuntary movements

Smooth muscle tissue contractions

Food moves through the esophagus

Pushes bolus down

Muscular tube lined with epithelium

Epithelial Tissue Protects Esophagus

Cuboidal epithelium epithelium

Smooth and low friction

Secretes enzymes

Appendages traps foreign particles

Prevents harmful bacteria

Protects mechanical abrasions

Stratified

Goblet cells

Secrete mucus

Allow smooth passage of food

Protect cell wall

Digestion

Breaking down biomolecules

Stomach

Esophageal sphincter

Separates Esophagus from stomach

Regulates constriction of path

Prevents acids from travelling upwards

Opens up to allow bolus in

Lined with glandular epithelium

Gastric chief cells (accessory organs)

Epithelial cells in gastrointestinal tract

Produces pepsinogen

Inactive zymogen

Converted to pepsin by HCl

Produces digestive enzymes

Pepsin

Endopeptidase breaks peptide bonds

Breaks down proteins

Forms smaller peptides

Simplifies amino acids

Parietal cells (accessory organs)

Produces acids

Hydrochloric Acid

Kills bacteria

Activates pepsin

Mucosal defence mechanisms

Pre-epithelial tissue

Forms protective lining

Epithelium secretes mucus

Mucus protects stomach from burning

Rapid cell turn-over

Constantly regenerating

Produces electrolytes (HCO₃-)

Mucus and bicarbonate barrier

Neutralize acids

Maintains pH balance

Subepithelial tissue

Supplying nutrients and oxygen

Eliminates hydrogen ions

Smooth muscles

Contractions churn food

Breaks down food mechanically

Submerges food in gastric juices

Involuntary movements

Produces chyme

Acidic fluid

Contains partially digest food

Expelled through the sphincter

Small intestine

Duodenum

40 cm long

Narrow passageway

Signals pancreas

Receives digestive enzymes

Chemical digestion

Converts polymers to monomers

Amino acids (R-CH(NH₂)-COOH)

Fatty acids (R-COOH)

Simple sugars (C₆H₁₂O₆)

Simplifies biomolecules

Mechanical Digestion

Peristalsis

Wavy movements of muscles

Involuntary movements

Smooth muscle tissue contractions

Facilitates movement of chyme

Liver (accessory organs)

Secretes bile

Dissolves fat/lipids

CH₃(CH₂)nCOOH

Basic pH

Neutralize stomach acids

Facilitates absorption

Pancreas (accessory organs)

Produces insulin

Controls blood sugar

Enhance sports perforance

Releases sodium bicarbonate

Regulates stomach acid

Neutralize hydrochloric acid

HCl + NaHCO3 -> NaCl + H2CO3

Decomposition releases water

Releases carbon dioxide

NaCl + H₂CO₃ -> NaCl + H₂O + CO₂

Secretes enzymes

Improves metabolic processes

Amylase (C₉H₁₄N₄O₃)

Breaks down carbohydrates

Starch + water -> maltose

Forms disaccharide glucose

C₆H₁₀O₅ + H₂O -> C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁

Trypsin

Protein catalysts

Breaks down proteins

Makes amino acids

Lipase

Breaks down lipids

Fatty acids and glycerol

Absorption

Small intestine

Jejunum & Ileum

Lined with columnar epithelium

Secretes mucus

Lubricates passageway

Protects jejunum during movement

Forms selective barrier

Regulates nutrient absorption

Absorbs monomers

Contains villi projections

Absorbs incoming nutrients

Takes in monomers

Increases chyme surface area

Facilitates absorption

Vascularity

Contain capillaries

Nutrients transported to capillaries

Linked to lymphatic vessels

Facilitates diffusion

Through protein channels

Molecules → cell membrane

Cell membrane → Capillaries

Capillaries → Bloodstream

Capillary action

Facilitates diffusion

Takes nutrients from villi

Microprojections

Extend into intestinal lumen

Connect to capillaries

Transports nutrients to bloodstream

Nutrients carried to body cells

More nutrients to metabolize

Increased energy

Improves athletic performance

More calories available

Monosaccharide

Simplified carbohydrates

Amino acids

Monomer proteins

Lymphatic vessels to cells

Transport simplified lipids

Monoglycerides

Fatty acids

Metabolic process energy sources

Monomer amino acids

Muscle tissue repair

Muscle strength

Facilitate hormone synthesis

Enhance athletic performance

Synthesizes neurotransmitters

Enhance athletic performance

Used in Krebs Cycle

Oxidized during glycolysis

Forms acetyl-CoA

Turned into ATP energy

Fuels body movement

Fuels all cellular processes

Enhances athletic performance

Fatty acids

Simplified carbohydrates

Primary energy source

Broken down into glucose

Used in cellular respiration

Elimination

Chyme enters rectum

Stores + compacts waste

Excretes waste

Through anus

Voluntary control

Careers

Gastroenterologists

Treats gastrointestinal diseases

GERD

Crohn’s Disease

Colon polyps

Perform routine operations

Esophageal cancer surgery

Remove part of esophagus

Reroute esophagus

Tumor removal

Conduct exploratory procedures

Colonoscopies

Examine large bowel

Detect colon abnormalities

Inserted through rectum

Hepatologists

Subspecialty of gastroenterology

Diagnose liver disease

Fatty liver disease

Detected through biopsy

Patient consultations

Determines operations necessary

Does not operate

Analyzes test results

Reviews bloodwork

Conducts biopsies

Manages disorders

Treats pancreatitis

Perform stool tests

Prescribe medication

Conduct exploratory procedures

Endoscopy

Tube with camera

Observe digestive tract

Cancer screening procedure

GI tissue biopsy

Diseases

Celiac Disease

Causes

Overconsumption of gluten

Immune system attacks villi

Villous atrophy

Degrades villi layer

Reduced absorption of nutrients

Mineral deficiency

Vitamin deficiency

Symptoms

Anemia

Caused by iron deficiency

Dizziness + fatigue

Weakness

Malnutrition

Dermatitis herpetiformis

Changes in epithelial cells

Intestine lining mutation

Blistering skin rash

Osteoporosis

Bone density loss

Bone degeneration

Diagnosis

Serology test

Checking for antibodies

Looks for autoimmune response

Genetic testing

Checks for leukocyte antigens

Endoscopy

Check villi damage

Treatment

Gluten free diet

Reduce needs of villi

Vitamin + Mineral supplements

Balances body vitamins

Solves nutritional deficiency

Folate, Iron, Zinc

Corticosteroids

Reduce immune system activity

Controls intestine inflammation

Azathioprine + Budesonide

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)

Causes

Frequent acid reflux

Weakened esophageal sphincter

Stomach doesn’t close

Sphincter isn’t efficient

Acid backwash

Stomach's contents flow up

Inflamed lining

Connective tissue disorders

Scleroderma

Symptoms/Complications

Heartburn

Burning sensation

Caused by acid backwash

Difficulty swallowing

Laryngitis

Inflammation of larynx

Damaged vocal cords

Scarred throat tissue

Chest pain

Increased pH

Vomiting (regurgitation)

Esophageal stricture

Scar tissue narrows esophagus

Increased choking risk

Less efficient ingestion

Diagnosis

Upper endoscopy

Looks at digestive tract

Magnifies epithelial lining

Thin, flexible tube

Camera attached to tube

Captures video

Intravenous sedative (in your vein)

Relaxes muscle

Reduces pain/sensation

Acid probe test

Probe inserted in nostril

Attached to monitor

Monitors pH levels

Detects acid spikes

X-ray Imaging

Drink ink/chalk

Outlines tract damage

Frames digestive tract

Treatment

Antacids

Provide quick relief

Neutralize acid

Basic pH

Causes kidney problems

Alters calcium metabolism

Proton pump inhibitors

Prevent acid-making proteins

Reduces acid production

Includes Dexilant + Aciphex

H-2-receptor blockers

Long-term relief

Acid reduction

Inhibits HCl production

Musculoskeletal System

Functions

Skeletal System

Key Functions

Protects internal organs

Supports body shape

Provides structural support

Provides body framework

Facilitates movement

Bone marrow

Hematopoiesis

Blood cell production

Hematopoiesis

Store + release minerals

Stored in hydroxyapatite

Combined with collagen

Prevents brittle bones

Energy storage

Adipose fat

Axial Skeleton

The skull

Protects the brain

Prevents brain injury

Minimizes brain damage

Enhance playing safety

Outer protective layer

Determines facial structure

Thoracic rib cage

12 rib pairs

Supported by clavicles

Protects internal organs

Protects heart + lungs

Vertebral column (spine)

24 vertebrae

Encases spinal cord

Supports head

Minimizes spinal injuries

Electrical impulse highway

Connective tissue

Bones

Functions + Characteristics

Osseous tissue

Hard, dense tissue

Made of protein fibres

Provide structural support

Hydroxyapatite (Ca₅(PO₄)₃)

Hold collagen fibers

Mineralized structures

Stores calcium

Hold phosphate

Anatomy

Diaphysis

Hollow shaft

Store bone marrow

Epiphysis

Spongy bone

Red bone marrow

Periosteum

Compact outer shell

Medullary cavities

Inner pockets

Contain bone marrow

Osteons

Cylindrical passageways

Blood vessels pass through

Bone marrow

Facilitates hematopoiesis

Blood cell production

Hemocytoblasts differentiate

Hematopoietic stem cells

Precursor cells

Forms two progenitors

Myeloid stem cells

Forms erythrocytes

Stimulated by erythropoietin

Red blood cells

Necessary for oxygen

Nutrient transport

Produces platelets

Lymphoid stem cells

Forms lymphocytes

T-Cells + B-Cells

Storage of calcium

Mineralize bones

Regulate heart rate

Aid in contractions

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Provide body balance

Distributes weight stress

Reduces bone density

Lightens bones

Facilitates activity

Houses bone marrow

Ligaments

Strips of connective tissue

Elastic structure

Supports movement

Hold bones together

Bone to bone

At the joint

Point where bones meet

Fibres of collagen

Allow joint movement

Provides joint stability

Cartilage

Semi-rigid tissue

Gel-like padding

Absorbs shock

Reduces friction

Prevents joint degradation

Enhanced sports performance

Facilitates smooth movement

Stabilizes joints

Tendons

Bind muscle + bone

Attached at periosteum

Transmit mechanical force

Dense collagen fibres

Withstand mechanical stress

Muscle System

Key Functions

Responsible for movement

Necessary for exercise

Muscle contract + relax

Generate mechanical force

Controlled by AcH

Binds to receptors

Open sarcolemma channels

Sodium ion released

Calcium ion releases

Enter sarcoplasm

Binds myosin + actin

Resist gravity

Maintain posture

Responsible for circulation

Facilitate movement

Muscle contractions

Work in antagonistic pairs

One contracts, other relaxes

Biceps + triceps

Facilitates movement

Use contractile proteins

Fibers receive signals

Actin + myosin proteins

Stimulates myosin filaments

ATP -> Mechanical energy

Pulls actin filaments

Shorten sarcomeres

Contracts muscles

Skeletal muscle

Facilitates voluntary movements

Necessary for exercise

Muscle fiber bundles

Contain striations

Dark stripes

Actin + myosin filaments

Contract + expand

Covered in epimysium

Protects muscles

Gives muscles elasticity

Receive electrical impulses

Conducted by motor neurons

Impulse prompts contraction

Smooth muscle

Involuntary movement

Triggered via hormones

In hollow organs

Stomach + intestines

Move substances in body

Facilitate tubular movement

Peristalsis

Blood vessel contractions

No striations

Contain actin + myosin

Activated by calcium ions

Released by impulses

Release ATP energy

Fuel contractions

Cardiac muscle

Found only in heart

Facilitates blood pump

Involuntary control

Cardiomyocytes muscle cells

Short, branched, striated

Contract + pump blood

Connected by gap junctions

Transfer electrical stimulation

Simultaneous heart contractions

Diseases

Hypocalcemia

Causes

Reduced calcium intake

Calcium intolerance

Leads to malabsorption

Vitamin D deficiency

Inhibits calcium absorption

Kidney disorders

Celiac Disease

Damaged small intestine

Inhibits calcium absorption

Corticosteroids

Reduce calcium levels

Prevent calcium absorption

Symptoms

Easily fractured bones

Reduced bone density

Brittle bones

Aching pains

Lower back

Weak appendicular skeleton

Irregular heart rhythm

Caused by low calcium

Numbness in extremities

Poor blood flow

Calcium needed for circulation

Muscle weakness

Diagnosis

Blood samples

Measure calcium levels

Monitor protein levels

Urinalysis

Detect low vitamin-D

Check phosphorus levels

X-Ray

Check for fractures

Detect bone cracks

Treatment

Supplements

Calcium + vitamin D

Intestinal surgery

Repair small intestine

Intravenous calcium injections

Leukemia

Causes

Radiation exposure

Damage bone marrow

Blood cell mutation

Bone marrow cancer

Environmental factors

Genetic disorders

Down syndrome

Genetic mutations

Diseased blood-forming tissues

Bone marrow

Excessive white blood cells

Diseased bone marrow

Uncontrollable blood production

Abnormal cells produced

Inhibits healthy cells

Symptoms

Weakness + fatigue

Bone tenderness

Severe infections

Uncontrolled immune system

Excessive perspiration

Recurrent bleeding

Poor blood clotting

Diagnosis

Bone marrow test

Extract bone marrow

Needle punctures hip

Detect cancerous cells

Physical exam

Check lymph nodes

Enlarged liver signs

Treatments

Chemotherapy

Target cancer cells

Kill leukemia cells

Radiation therapy

Damage leukemia cells

Inhibit further growth

Ionizing radiation

Bone marrow transplant

Replace diseased tissue

Use stem cells

Get healthy donor cells

New blood produces

Immune Cell Engineering

Modify immune cells

Produce cancer fighting cells

CAR-T cell therapy

Infuse modified T-cells

Target cancerous cells

Careers

Physiotherapist

Pinpoint injury causes

Treat injuries + conditions

Arthritis

Pelvic issues

Retrains muscles

Manual exercise therapy

Provides rehabilitation

Develop treatment plans

Massage muscles

Muscle stimulation devices

Restore movement capabilities

Conducts exercise

Electrotherapy

Orthopedic surgeons

Musculoskeletal treatment

Perform common operations

Knee arthroscopy

Hip replacements

Lumbar spinal fusions

Orthopaedic trauma

Treat critical injuries

Install screws, plates etc

Oncologic orthopaedics

Treat bone cancers

Respiratory System

Anatomy

Conducting zone

Mouth

Secondary airway intake

Oral Mucosa

Secrete mucus

Protect cell wall

Allow smooth passage of food

Cuboidal epithelium epithelium

Smooth and low friction

Secretes enzymes

Appendages traps foreign particles

Prevents harmful bacteria

Nose

Primary air intake

Made of cartilage

Has conchae projections

Bounce air around

Brushes air on epithelium

Respiratory epithelium lining

Columnar epithelial cells

Secretes mucus

Moisturizes air

Warms incoming hair

Prevent air dehydration

Contains hair

Filters out debris

Pharynx (throat)

Formed by skeletal muscle

Connected to nasal cavity

Air passageway

Lymphoid tissue structures

Houses the tonsils

Covered with ciliated epithelium

Has hairlike appendages

Destroys incoming pathogens

Larynx

Regulates air volume

Contains vocal cords

Made of cartilage

Thyroid cartilage

Cricoid cartilage

Epiglottis

Trachea

Windpipe

Supported by rings

Blocked by epiglottis

Gasses only

Flap of tissue

Prevents food from entering windpipe

Protects the trachea

Rigid vacuum hose

Leads into lungs

Splits into 2 bronchi

Respiratory zone

Lungs

Exchange of gases

Remove CO₂ waste

Provide blood with oxygen

No muscle tissue

"Powered" by diaphragm

Bronchi

Attached to trachea

Supported by cartilage

Major air passage

Two bronchi (bronchus)

Splits into both lungs

Ciliated epithelium

Moisturizes air

Bronchioles

Structure in the lungs

Smaller oxygen branches

Bronchial tree

Connected to alveolar duct

Goblet cells secrete mucus

Catches small particles

Gets coughed up

Alveolar ducts

Smooth muscle tube

Branch into alveoli

Opens into alveoli cluster

Alveoli

Sac-like structures

End of bronchioles

Facilitate gas exchange

Specialized cell lining

Type 1 Pneumocytes

Thin walled

Designed for diffusion

Lined with mucus

Type 2 Pneumocytes