Science

Luminous sources: Produce light

Non-luminous objects: Reflect light

Made up of a continuous sequence of colours

White light hits a prism at an angle the light disperses into its different wave lengths

Glow Sticks

Fireflies

Light is emitted slowly

Glow in the dark stuff

Gas Stove, Torch

Gas atoms get excited and give off light

Lightning, Neon signs

Fluorescent dyes in detergent, highlighter

Electric current causes Hg to emit UV

UV hits fluorescent coating

Production of visible light

Clear disc which focuses the light onto the retina

White, tough outer part of the eye that provides protection

Layer of light sensitive cells which send impulses to the optic nerve

Small area of the retina which contains only cones

Responsible for sending information to the brain to be processed

Jelly-like fluid which helps keep the shape of the eyeball.

Near-sightedness

Lens type to fix: Diverging

Far-sightedness

Lens type to fix: Converging

Coloured sheet of muscle which controls the amount of light that enters the eye

Clear area of sclera that helps bend light into the retina

The hole in the middle of the iris where light enters the eye

Responsible for the vision at low light

Active in high light levels. Able to see colour

Centre of a sphere whose surface has been used as a mirror
C=2f

The line through C that passes through the midpoint of the mirror (normal to the centre of the mirror

Is halfway between the vertex and the centre of curvature. When parallel light rays are shone along the P.A., the reflected rays converge and cross at the focal point.

The distance from the focal point to vertex

Parallel rays are reflected through F

Rays passing through F are reflected parallel to the P.A.

Rays passing through C are reflected back along the same path

Rays striking V follow the laws of reflection (angle of incidence = angle of reflection)

Hint: If the reflected rays of diverge (reflect AWAY from each other)
Trace the back behind the mirror to find a virtual image.

The point where the P.A. meets the mirror

To meet at a common point

n1 sin θI = n2 sinθR

Index of refraction of the media in which the angle of incidence is

Index of refraction of the media in which the angle of refraction is

A mirror whose reflecting surface curves outward

Diverging mirror

A mirror whose reflecting surface curves inward

Converging mirrors

All images will be formed at the same place

Behind Mirror
Upright
Smaller
Virtual

Regular Reflection: of light from smooth shiny surfaces

Many surfaces appear smooth, but when viewed under a microscope they are not.

Because of the uneven surface, the light rays are scattered in many directions (diffused).

Something that is flat will reflect nicely, something that is not flat will reflected not so nicely. (random like a broken mirror)

They still obey the laws of reflection (Angle of incidence= angle of reflection)

Most objects are made of rough surfaces (and therefore scatter light); if this did not happen, indoor lighting would not be effective

Walls floors ceilings scatter light in all directions making them visible

This is known as Law of Rectilinear Propagatio

Location: Behind the mirror the same distance from the mirror as the object

Orientation: Image is upright, and laterally inverted

Size: Same size object

Type: Virtual

A ray is a single path followed by light

A beam is a 'bundle' of light rays

Location: Behind or in front of the mirror

Orientation: Vertical (Upright or inverted) Lateral (Left to right)

Size: Bigger smaller, or same size as object

Type: Real or Virtual

Cannot be less than 1.00
Air=1.00 Glass=1.5 Water= 1.33

Is thicker at the center than at the edges

Often called a converging lens because when surrounded by material with a lower index of refraction, it refracts parallel light rays so that the rays meet at a point

Thinner in the middle than at the edges

Often called a diverging lens because when surrounded by material with a lower index of refraction, rays passing through it spread out

Holds Materials and waste.

Largest organelle in plant cells

Breaks down nutrients and turns it into energy

Cellular Resperation

Coverts light energy into sugars

Found in plants

Gives cell its shape. Keeps organelles in place

Make proteins, crucial to cell devision

processes proteins

contains digestive enzymes

Round

Stores cell DNA and controls cell

Separates nucleus contents from rest of cell

Folds proteins to correct shapes

Helps move lipids and steroids

Provides protection to cell

Found in plant cells

Makes RNA and Ribosomes

Regulates what enters and leaves the cell

Square shaped

Cytoplasm and organelles duplicate in a process called cytokinesis

Cleavage furrow/cell plate closes off to create two identical sister cells

Cells spend most of its life in this phase

Resting and normal cellular function

Consists of 3 part

Chromosomes are pulled apart "away" from sister chromatid

Cleavage furrow starts to form in animal cell and a cell plates forms in plant cells

Chromosomes migrate to the middle of the cell (equator)

Spindle fibers attach to the centromere

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes

Nuclear membrane disappears

Spindle fibers being to appear

Arteries: Carry blood away from heart

Veins: Carry blood to heart

Capillaries: Allow exchange of nutrients, wastes, and gasses.

Fluids- transports materials (blood)

Pump- pumps the fluid through vessels

Vessels- where blood flows through

Has 4 chambers

Has valves and veins

Oxygen enters the bloodstream in the lungs by DIFFUSION

Carbon Dioxide leaves the blood by DIFFUSION

Occurs at the alveoli

Inhale
Ribs expand
Diaphragm flattens muscles contract

Exhale
Ribs contract
Diaphragm dome-snapped (pushes up) muscles relax

Produce Mucus
Have Cilia

Helps move mucus and filter foreign particles

Ingestion- Mouth

Digestion-
Mechanical (mouth and stomach)
Chemical (mouth stomach small intestine)

Absorption- Small intestine for nutrients, large intestine for water

Elimination- Feces held in rectum until ready

Physical and chemical breakdown

Teeth and tongue

Saliva –amylase (breaks down starch)

Flexible, muscular tube

Bolus

No digestive occurs

Moves food to stomach by peristalsis

Covers passage to trachea

Physical and Chemical digestion

Gastric Fluids
Water
Mucin
Pepsin (breaks down protein)
HCL

Lined with mucus

Food stays for 4-5 hours

Now called chyme

Amino acids, proteins

Fatty acids + glycerol, fats

Glucose, starch

Reabsorption of water into the body

Production of vitamin K and biotin by bacteria

Chemical digestion

Nutrient absorption

Bile added

Pancreatic fluids
Amylase
Lipase (breaks down fat)
Pepsin
Sodium bicarbonate
Other enzymes

Holding area

Muscular tube

A model of an atom with the nucleus at the center, and the electrons drawn around it on different energy levels or electron orbits

Draw Nucleus
Draw total number of electrons in correct orbit arrangement

Protons and Neutrons go in the nucleus

Orbit 1- 2 Electrons
Orbit 2- 8 Electrons
Orbit 3- 8 Electrons

Neutrons= atomic mass – # of Protons

Draw symbol and then the valence electron(s)

Skip transition metals they have weird rules

Draw chemical symbol
Determine valence electrons
Skip middle (transition metals) when counting groups
Draw valence electrons around symbol

Florine has 7 valence electrons

Valence electrons are determined by element group
Groups are the vertical columns on the table

Group 1 has 1 valence E and group 2 has 2 valence E and so on

Mono
Di
Tri
Tetra
Penta
Hexa
Repta
Octa
Nona
Deca

Adds Hydrogen ions
H+

Hydrochloric acid
HCl ---> H+ + Cl-

HCl+ NaOH ---> H2O + NaCl + energy
Acid + base ---> water + salt + heat

NEUTRAL

Adds Hydroxyl ions
OH-

Sodium Hydroxide
NaOH ---> Na+ + OH-

Two or more chemicals bond together forming one new substance

Example: 2Na + Cl2 --> 2NaCl

One substance breaks down into two or more substances

Example: 2H2O2 ----> 2H2O + O2

Two compounds switch with each other

Example: BaCl2 + Na2SO4 ---> BaSO4 + 2NaCl

One element knocks another element out of a compound

Example: 2HCl + Zn ---> ZnCl2 + H2

Example: CH4 + O2 ----> CO2 + H2O

H O F Br I N Cl

The new chemical (s) formed by the reaction

Right side of the equation

The chemical (s) you start with before the reactions.

Written on the left side of equation

Reactant ---> product
Reactants react to produce the product

In other words, the number and type of atoms going INTO a reaction must be the same as the number and type of atoms coming out.

Ex: H2O
2 atoms of hydrogen (H)
1 atom of oxygen (O

EX: 3 H2O
Means there are 3 water molecules

Occurs between metal and non-metal

Metal in bond becomes a positive ion (cations) loses electrons to non-meta

Lithium loses valence electron and becomes [Li]+
Magnesium loses two valence and becomes [Mg]2+

Non-metal becomes a negative ion (anion) gains electrons from metal

Chlorine gains electron to fill valence shell [Cl]-

Ion= when an element has more protons than electrons or vice versa

Electrons are shared between non-metals

Neither takes a charge
Do not criss-cross
USE prefixes in name
Name tells formula
Cannot reduce

Most transition metals have multiple valences
Roman numerals are used in the name of transition metal in the compound to show the valence on the cation (metal)

Taste bitter
Feels slippery
Are corrosive (break down proteins)
Release hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution

(hydrogen + a single element) are called hydro__ic acids

Eg: H2S is Hydrosulphuric acid

Tastes sour
Are corrosive (reacts with metals to produce hydrogen gas)
Release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

It is possible to test the pH of a solution using indicators, eg: litmus paper

Blue litmus paper turns red in an acid and remains blue in neutral or alkaline solutions

Red litmus paper turns blue in a base and remains red in neutral or acidic solutions

Anything below 7 is an acid

The closer the pH is to 7, the weaker the acid

Anything above 7 is a base

The closer the pH is to 7 the weaker the base

Acetic Acid (in Vinegar)
HC2H3O2

Citric Acid (In citrus fruit)
H3C6H5O7

Carbonic Acid (In soft drinks)
H2CO3

Hydrochloric Acid (In your digestive system)
HCL

Sodium hydroxide
NaOH

Calcium Hydroxide
Ca(OH)2

Aluminum Hydroxide Al(OH)3

Sodium Bicarbonate
NaHCO3

Ammonia
NH3

Some acids and bases are much stronger (Have a high concentration of ions in solution than others)

Eg: Nitric acid is a strong acid; ammonia is a weak base

The strength of an acid or base may be measured on the pH scale. The scale runs from 0-14

Example: an acid that is a pH 5 is 10 times stronger than an acid of pH 6 etc.

There are 12 HHPS representing different types and levels of hazard

Four types: There are 4 different types of hazards

Poisonous, Explosive, Corrosive, Flammable

Three levels: There are 3 levels of hazards, each more harmful than the previous

Caution: Yellow triangle Warning: Orange diamond Danger: Red Hexagon

Combining the type and level of hazards creates HHPS

Safety Symbols: Have been developed to warn users of the hazards associated with different products.

HHPS

Hazardous Household Product Symbol
Found on household products-mostly cleaners

WHMIS

Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
Found on workplace products-mostly clearers

There are 8 WHMIS symbols

Each WHMIS symbol has a circle for its border

State whether your results are supported, partially supported, or rejected your hypothesis

Suggest possible sources of error
Suggest possible improvements

Identify patterns or trends in your data
Develop a possible explanation
Answer any questions with the lab

Question
Hypothesis
Variables
Procedure
Observations
Discussion/Analysis
Conclusion

Make careful notes of everything you observe during the experiment
Record data in graph, table or chart form

Step by step description of how the experiment is conducted

Avoid the use of "he" or "she" or "I"
Number the steps 1 2 3
Can also use diagram of set-up

Variables
Types of Variables

Independent Variable (IV)

The Variable that you change-The cause

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that you measure-The effect

Controlled Variable (CV)

All the other things are kept the same

Independent: What I change
Dependent: What I observe
Controlled: What I keep the same

Example: Does the amount of caffeine ingested
affect a person's heart rate?
Hypothesis: If a person ingests more than
5MG of caffeine, then the heart rate will increase

Independent Variable: The amount of caffeine
Dependent Variable: The heart rate
Controlled variable: Time of day, watch, person measuring, age

An educated guess about what you think will happen
Does not need to be correct

Example: If you exercise then your heart rate will increase
If I eat while I drive then my driving skills will become better

Format If_____ Then_____

Ask a question about something that interests you
It must be simple, specific, and do-able, -comparing 2 things

Example: Does the amount of exercise affect the heart rate?
Does eating while driving affect your driving skills?