Ways to Categorise Language Learning Strategies

Direct strategies
(involve use of
language)

memory strategies (remembering and retrieving new information)

creating mental
linkages

applying images
and sounds

reviewing well

employing action

cognitive strategies
(understanding and
producing
the language)

practising

receiving and
sending messages

analysing and
reasoning

creating structure
for input and
output

Compensatory strategies
(using the language
despite lack of
knowledge}

guessing
intelligently

overcoming
difficulties in
productive skills

Indirect strategies
(support language
learning)

metacognitive
strategies (coordinate
learning process)

centring own
learning

arranging and
planning own
learning

evaluating own
learning

affective strategies
(regulating emotions)

lowering anxiety

self-encouragement

regulating emotions

social strategies
(learning with others)

asking questions

cooperative with others

empathising with others

Direct learning
strategies

Cognitive learning
strategies (steps taken
in learning or problem
solving)

clarification

verification

guessing

inductive
inference

deductive
reasonign

practice

memorisation

monitoring

Metacognitive learning
strategies (superivse self-
directed language learning)

planning

prioritising

setting
goals

self-
management

Indirect learning
strategies

Communication strategies
(Focus on communication
process)

conversation

getting meaning
across

clarifying what the
speaker intends to
say

make use of linguistic
or communicative
knowledge

Social strategies

Management and planning
strategies
(control own
learning)

Decide what dedication
to make to language
learning

Set reasonable
objectives

Decide on suitable
methodology

Select proper resources

Monitor progess

Cognitive strategies
(help improve learning)

Clarification/
verification

Guessing/
inductive referencing

Deductive reasoning

Practice

Memorisation

Monitoring

Communicative-
experiental strategies

gesturing

paraphrasing

asking for
repetition and
explanations
to keep
conversations
going

Interpersonal strategies

monitor learning
development

evaluate learning
performance

Affective strategies

build positive feelings
towards language and
learning activities

Cognitive strategies
(enable learners to
manipulate
language materials)

reasoning

analysing

note-taking

summarising

synthesising

outlining

reorganising information

Metacognitve strategies
(managing the
learning process)

identify own learning styles,
preferences, and needs

planning for L2 tasks

gathering and
organising
materials

monitoring mistakes

evaluating task
success

Memory-related strategies
(help link L2 items
or concepts)

create learning and retrieval

sounds

images

a combination of
sounds and images

boday movement

Compensatory strategies
(help make up for
missing knowledge especially
productive language skills)

guessing from context

using synonyms and talking around
missing word

Affective strategies

idenitfy one's mood and anxiety level

talking about feelings

rewarding oneself for good performance

develop self-talk

Social strategies

asking questions to get verification

asking for clarification of a confusing
point

asking for help in doing a language
task

talking with a native-speaking
conversation partner

exploring cultural and social norms