Sociology as a Discipline
Founded by
Auguste Comte (1838)
Defined focus
Social interactions and structures
Emergence of sociology
Pre-Sociology
Natural Sciences
Biology
Chemistry
Physics
Humanities
Art
Philosophy
Music
Sociology At The Beginning
Rejected by natural sciences for too much reliance on probability/stats and lack of experiments
Led to creation of social sciences
Sociology
examines external factors (family, religion, government, economy etc.) to understand behavior
Psychology
Has more acceptance from natural sciences because it uses experiments
Focuses on mind and internal factors to explain behavior
Anthropology
Political Science
Foundational Sociologists
Auguste Comte
Developed term sociology
Focused on social order and change
Karl Marx
conflict theory
focusing on societal power struggles and class inequality
His theories resonated with the social movements of the time
Initially seen as a social activist rather than a sociologist
gained prominence in the 1960s
Emile Durkheim
Introduced functionalism
viewing society as a complex organism
Key Study
Suicide (1800s)
analyzed data on suicides in 19th-century France, comparing different groups (men vs. women, rich vs. poor, etc.)
identified patterns and created theory of social integration to explain variations in suicide rates
Max Weber
Focused on rationalization and bureaucracy
Created 'ideal type' which is a model for studying organizations
comparing traditional (mom-and-pop) to bureaucratic systems
Looked at the efficiency, rationality, and effectiveness of bureaucracies in large-scale operation
Resources
Introduction to sociology: Sociological theory and research methods. (2012). In Films On Demand. Films Media Group. https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=107659&xtid=117903
Golriz, G. (2024). Sociological Methods (and interventions) [PowerPoint slides]. Queen's University. https://onq.queensu.ca/d2l/le/content/944640/viewContent/5829238/View
Theoretical Frameworks in Sociology
Functionalism (Emile Durkheim)
Views society as an organism with interconnected institutions (family religion, economy) which work together like organs in a body
Societal changes in one institution affect the whole system
Early 1900s to the 1950s
Conflict Theory (Karl Marx)
Focuses on power struggles (inequality/social division, race, gender, class etc.)
Society is driven by competition for limited resources
1960s -- influenced by social movements
challenges the functionalist view
Symbolic Interactionism (Erving Goffman)
Micro-level analysis of day-to-day social interactions
Dramaturgical Theory
Views everyday life as a theatrical performance
where individuals play roles (front stage/back stage)
how individuals create meaning through communication and symbols
Sociological Research Methods
Surveys
Large-scale data collection
statistical analysis
Pros
Reach large populations quickly
Cons
Risk of misinterpretation/bias
Not all surveys are created equal (there is good and bad ones)
Eliciting information from respondents through questions
Can be from observation, experiments, existing sources
Types
Interview
Pros
versatile (on the phone, web or face to face), anonymous
Cons
Lengthy and expensive
Questionare
Pros
Less expensive, usually anonymous, less time consuming, online/mail form
Cons
No response bias, limited options and flexibility
Field Research
Observing and studying social behaviour where it naturally occurs
Ethnography (Fieldwork/Participant Observation)
Immersing yourself into a particular social setting
Example
Venkatesh's study of Chicago street gangs
Requires both insider and outsider perspective
Non Participant Observation
Observing the phenomena being studied without participating (just observation)
Experiment
Artificially created situation that allows researchers to manipulate variables
Two groups
Experimental
Exposed to Independent Variable
Control
Not exposed to Independant Variable
Hawthorne Effect
Unintended influence of observers of experiments on subject
Secondary Data Analysis
Using pre-existing data
answer new sociological questions
Data is non reactive and does not influence what researchers find
Pros
Data already available
Cons
Limited by the original data's scope
hypothesis
relationship between two or more variables to explain social phenomena
Content Analysis
Systemic coding and objective recording of data guided by some rationale
Allows better understanding of our cultural practices
Scientific Method
Identifying a problem
Clearly state what you hope to investigate
Transforms an abstract concept into indicators that are observable and measurable, allowing researchers to assess the concept
Reviewing existing literature
Investigating previous research conducted by sociologists and others regarding the concepts individuals wish to study
Creating hypothesis and variables
State a prediction about the relationship between variables (measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions)
Independent Variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another
Dependant Variable: Variable subject to influence of another variable
Casual Logic
Relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence with one event leading to the other
Correlation and Causation
Correlation: Relationship between two variables in which a change coincides with a change in the other
Causation: one event is the cause of another
Collecting and analyzing data
Selecting research design
Sample
A selection of a larger population
Random Sampling
Occurs when every member of a population has the same change of being selected for a study
Pros
Has a lot of variance and represents the population well, with a lack of bias
Cons
Time consuming and expensive, may not include minority voices
Purposive Sampling
Occurs when some members of the population are selected for the study
Pros
Good for population access (such as including small minority groups and marginilized communities)
Cons
Not representative of the population and biased
Pick a research technique to test a hypothesis
Validity and Reliability
Validity: The degree a mesure or scale accurately reflects the phenomena under study
Reliability: Refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results (replicability)
Drawing conclusions
Drawing on data whether the findings support or refute the hypthesis
Control Factors
Control Variable: A factor that is held constant to test relitative impact of the independent variable, for instance controlling for food intake in a study about how exercise impacts weight
Organized series of steps for conducting research
Systemic
Research Design
Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically
Qualitative
Relies on what is seen in field setting
Focuses on small groups and communities
Enables greater contextual details
Quantitative
Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form
Mean
Sum of numbers divided by the amount of numbers in the set
Median
Middle of the set/what divides the set into 2 groups
Mode
Most common number in a set
Ethics in Sociological Research
Informed Consent
Participants must know purpose and risks
agree voluntarily
No Harm
Research should not inflict harm on participants
Confidentiality
Protect identities of research subjects
ie. Feminism has influenced current social researchers, they emphasize consent, involve participation and include subjective voices
Example of Ethical Breach: Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)
The experiment simulated a prison environment, with participants randomly assigned as guards or prisoners.
Ethical issues due to potential psychological harm inflicted on participants
importance of ethical considerations in research
Maintain Objectivity and integrity in research
Respect Subjects right to privacy and dignity
Aknowledge research collabs and assistance
Disclose all sources of financial support
American Sociological Association (ASA) Guidelines
Ethical standards for conducting sociological research
Focuses on privacy and informed consent