What is Metaphysics: From Abstract to Concrete

Existentialism

Philosopher/Theory: Jean-Paul Sartre – "Existence precedes essence"

Søren Kierkegaard – argued that religious faith provides meaning in life.

People seeking purpose through careers, relationships, and self-expression despite no inherent meaning in life.

If life has no predetermined meaning, we create our own purpose through choices and actions.

People struggle to define their purpose in an ever-changing world

Some seek meaning through personal creation and self-defined purpose.

Nihilism

Philosopher/Theory: Friedrich Nietzsche – "God is dead"

Friedrich Nietzsche – claimed that meaning is not given to us; we must create our own.

Real-World Examples: The rise of absurdist humor and existential dread in modern culture, as seen in media like BoJack Horseman or Rick and Morty.

If life has no intrinsic meaning, some embrace absurdity, while others struggle with despair.

Challenges traditional values, rejecting the idea of inherent meaning.

Humanism

Philosopher/Theory: Viktor Frankl – Logotherapy (Finding meaning through suffering)

Real world examples: Survivors of tragedies who dedicate their lives to helping others, such as Malala Yousafzai advocating for education despite facing violence.

Meaning is created by contributing to the well-being of others and finding personal fulfillment.

Emphasizes purpose in human relationships, personal development, and societal progress.

Many people find meaning in relationships, spirituality, or contributing to society

Determinism

Philosopher/Theory: Baruch Spinoza – Everything is caused by prior events

Real-World Example: Psychological studies showing that brain activity predicts decisions before we are consciously aware of them.

If our choices are predetermined by past causes and brain chemistry, true free will may not exist.

suggests much of human behavior is influenced by genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and past experiences

studies on addiction or behavioral disorders often highlight how deeply ingrained factors like upbringing or chemical imbalances can limit an individual’s choices.

Libertarian Free Will

Philosopher/Theory: Immanuel Kant – Moral responsibility implies free will

Real-World Example: Legal systems hold people accountable for their actions, assuming they have free choice.

If we were fully controlled by external forces, moral responsibility would be meaningless.

evident in the moral and legal systems, where individuals are held accountable for their actions, assuming they are free to choose their behaviors

Legal frameworks around criminal responsibility, such as the defense of insanity or self-defense, show that society believes in the ability to make free choices within a given context

Compatibilism

Philosopher/Theory: David Hume – Free will exists within causal laws

Real-World Example: People making choices despite influences (e.g., overcoming addiction through self-discipline).

Even if we are shaped by causes, we still experience decision-making as meaningful, making free will a functional reality.

even though our actions are shaped by external factors, we still have some level of agency

The criminal justice system, for instance, considers both a person’s background and personal choice when assigning responsibility, aiming to balance free will with the influences of determinism.

Theism

Philosopher/Theory: William Paley – Watchmaker Argument (Complexity implies a designer)

Real-World Example: Many religions rely on divine revelation and miracles as evidence of God's existence.

If the universe appears designed, it is logical to infer an intelligent creator

religious practices worldwide, where people actively worship a deity or deities and find a sense of purpose, comfort, and community through their belief in God

seen in personal stories of faith, such as miracles, prayer experiences, or moments of spiritual awakening, which believers cite as evidence of God's existence.

Atheism

Philosopher/Theory: Bertrand Russell – The burden of proof is on believers

Real-World Example: The lack of empirical evidence for God’s existence leads many to reject the claim.

If no empirical proof exists, it is more rational to doubt than to believe without evidence.

exemplified by individuals or movements that reject the idea of God, often advocating for secularism and scientific reasoning

Famous atheists like Richard Dawkins or groups like the Freedom From Religion Foundation challenge religious claims, arguing that a lack of empirical evidence undermines belief in God.

Agnosticism

Philosopher/Theory: Søren Kierkegaard – Faith as a "leap" beyond reason

Real-World Example: Many scientists and philosophers admit they do not know the answer and remain open to possibilities.

Since God's existence is unprovable, uncertainty may be the most honest position.

individuals who remain unsure about God’s existence, often stating that it is impossible to know for certain

many are exploring beliefs outside of traditional theism and atheism

Cosmology

informs scientific inquiries such as space exploration and the search for extraterrestrial life, evidenced by missions like NASA’s Mars rovers or the James Webb Space Telescope’s examination of distant galaxies.

Philosopher/Theory: Carl Sagan – The "Pale Blue Dot" perspective

Real-World Example: The Hubble Deep Field image showing galaxies billions of light-years away, making Earth seem insignificant.

The vastness of the universe suggests that humanity’s role is small, but our search for knowledge gives us significance.

understand whether we are unique in the universe.

Theism

Philosopher/Theory: Thomas Aquinas – Teleological Argument (Design suggests a designer)

Real-World Example: Religious faith providing comfort by giving humanity a divine purpose.

If the universe seems fine-tuned for life, it may indicate a higher power’s design

humans have a special, divinely assigned role in the universe, whether through Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, or other faiths

Materialism

Philosopher/Theory: Democritus – Atomism (Everything is made of physical matter)

Real-World Example: Scientific discoveries showing that human bodies and stars are made of the same elements.

If we are purely physical beings, then our place in the universe is defined by natural laws rather than divine purpose.

everything, including humans, is purely physical—there is no special or divine meaning to our existence beyond our material reality

Evolution, as understood through the theory of natural selection, informs our sense of place by explaining how humanity developed over millennia and highlighting the deep interconnectedness of all life on Earth. We are reminded of our biological roots in studies ranging from fossil records to genetic research, and our relationship to other life forms. The Anthropocene draws attention to human impact on the planet, as evidenced by climate change, deforestation, and pollution, which make us confront our role as both creators and destroyers of the world. These real-world issues push humanity to reconsider its responsibility in a rapidly changing planet and universe.

Subtopic

Dualism

Philosopher/Theory: René Descartes – "I think, therefore I am"

Real-World Example: Near-death experiences where individuals claim to "leave" their bodies.

Consciousness may be separate from the physical brain, supporting the idea of a soul.

debates over whether the mind and body are separate

Physicalism

Philosopher/Theory: Daniel Dennett – Consciousness as an emergent property of the brain

Real-World Example: Studies on brain injuries altering personality, proving that mental states rely on physical processes.

If consciousness changes with brain damage, it is likely a product of neural activity, not a separate entity.

Consciousness is entirely a physical process, emerging from the brain and nervous system

Panpsychism

Philosopher/Theory: David Chalmers – The "Hard Problem of Consciousness"

Real-World Example: Some scientists suggest that even simple systems (like AI or bacteria) may have basic awareness.

If consciousness exists on a spectrum, it may be a fundamental aspect of the universe, not just a human trait.

belief that consciousness is inherent in all matter, is gaining traction in philosophical circles and even in popular discussions about the nature of reality

consciousness may not be limited to humans or animals but could be present, in some form, throughout the entire universe, influencing how we consider the world around us.