Concept Map 1 - Group 28

Macromolecules

NUCLEIC ACIDS

made up of monomers called nucleotides

nucleotides contain phosphate group, 5-carbon, nitrogenous base

phosphodiester linkage between nucleotides

DNA + RNA

DNA provides directions for its own replication + directs synthesis of mRNA

CARBOHYDRATES

monomers = monosaccharides

covalent bonds between monosaccharides = glycosidic linkages

storage (e.g. glycogen, starch, dextran)

Cells!!

Cytoplasm, DNA/RNA, Membrane, Ribosomes

Eukaryotes

Cell Wall (if any) made of cellulose (or chitin in fungus)

Membrane Bound Organelles

Prokaryotes (Archaea & Bacteria)

Plasmids - genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes.

Capsules- Helps prokaryotes cling to each other and to various surfaces in their environment

Cytoplasm- Gel-like substance that is a medium for chemical reactions in cell

DNA/RNA - Genetic material that's responsible for longterm storage of cellular information

Cellular Membrane- Semi-permeable barrier that allows essential molecules into the cell for use

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

A type of lipid, one of the most important components of biochemistry

Major component of the cell membrane

responsible for dynamic membrane fluctuations

Membranes have saturated and unsaturated fatty acids to maintain the proper amount of fluidity

impart selective permeability

they control the movement of molecules across the cell membrane

Hydrophobic behavior ^

Soluble in non polar solvents

Two fatty acids attached to glycerol

glycerol attaches to a phosphate group

Exhibits negative charge within cell

polar hydrophilic head

hydrophilic because of the phosphate group

Non polar hydrophobic tails

The type of hydrocarbon tails effects the plasma membrane fluidity

Bilayer forms by self assembly when contact is made with water

Tails point inside

Shielded from external environment

hydrophilic heads make all contact with the solution

Form because of their amphiphilic characteristics

acts as a barrier to protect the cell

Self-assembly is a characteristic feature

Each phospholipid has a specific transition temperature

goes into a liquid crystalline phase when the temperature is exceeded

phospholipids move rapidly when fluid

movement is reduced as temperature decreases

when this happens the membrane becomes more gel-like.

movement in membranes is regulated by the cholesterol in membranes

linked to signal transductions

& organelle functions

& physiological processes

& human diseases

imperative for cell life

PROTEINS^

Primary

Intramolecular Bonds: Covalent

Uses main chain to form bonds

Polypeptide

Secondary

Beta Plated Sheets

Alpha helices

Tertiary

Folds through interaction of R groups

Non Polar Bonds

Hydrophobic interactions

Polar Bonds

Acidic

Hydrophilic

Basic

Ion dipole: Complete positive charge with water bond

Forms final 3D shape

Quaternary

Two polypeptides in tertiary level, interacting with R groups

Selective acceleration of chemical reactions

Enzyme

Protection against disease

Subtopic

Storage of amino acids

Transports of substances

Carrier proteins

Coordination of an organism's activities

Response of cell to chemical stimuli

Amino Acids: monomer in proteins

Amino group

Carboxyl group

R Group

Hydrogen

No Membrane Bound Nucleus

Chromosomes are Circular and float around in cytoplasm instead of a nucleus.

Cell Wall made of Peptidoglycan (In Bacteria)

Membrane Bound Nucleus

Ribosomes Function - Synthesizing proteins

Animal

Same Organelles in Both Types of Eukaryotes & Their Functions

Vacuole- Hold important organic materials or hold waste materials inside of cell's

Smooth ER- Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies cells

Rough ER- Ribosomes attached to wall that synthesize proteins

Mitochondria- Responsible for making ATP and is double-membraned and has its own DNA

Plant

Chloroplast- convert light energy into chemical energy via the photosynthetic process, contains plastids, and has its own DNA.

Endosymbiotic Theory- The beginning of eukaryotic cells organelle. Such as mitochondria and plastids, evolved from free-living prokaryotes that were consumed and formed a symbiotic with the cell that ate them. This is supported by the fact that Mitochondria and Chloroplast have their own separate DNA

Central Vacuole- Unlike animal cells, plant cells have a large vacuole in the middle of the cell that holds a large amount of water.

Nucleus- Hold's genetic info, keep DNA integrity, and conduct replication & transcription

Cell Wall- Holds the plants together when exposed to hypotonic solutions that would otherwise burst the cell, making it 'turgid.'

Lysosome- digestive system of the cell, serving both to degrade material taken up from outside the cell and to digest obsolete components of the cell itself.

Vacuole- Animals have small vacuoles that mainly hold organic molecules and are responsible for transport through the plasma membrane.^

Centrosomes- regulates cell motility & adhesion and polarity in interphase,

Golgi Apparatus- Modifies proteins and involved in intercellular transport

Fats (triacylglycerol)

glycerol and fatty acid linked by ester linkages

energy storage

Steroids

contain 4 fused rings

regulates membrane fluidity, component of hormones

LIPIDS

hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases

structure (e.g. cellulose, chitin)

structure + function of polysaccharides determined by sugar monomer and type of glycosidic linkage

Concept Map Two- Group 28

Source of ATP

Cellular Respiration

Four Steps In Cellular Respiration
(W/ Presence of Oxygen)

Glycolysis (substrate-level)

Consist of 10 Steps, 5 Energy Investment & 5 Energy Payout Stages

Input's Include- 2 ATP, 2 NAD+, & 1 Glucose

Step One- Glucose turns into Gluc 6- Phosphate w/ the addition of one ATP & Hexokinase

Step Two- Gluc 6-phosphate converts to fructose 6-phosphate w/ phosphoglucoisomerase

Step Three- Fructose 6-phosphate converts to fructose 1,6 bi-phosphate w/ the addition of one ATP & phosphofructokinase

Step Four- Fructose 1,6 bi-phos is cleaved in half by Aldolase which makes it into two three-carb sugars

Step Five- The two three carb sugars both convert to G3P

Step Six- Both G3P's are oxidized, making NAD+ into NADH (electron carrier), free energy is used to add phos groups to G3P

Step Seven- The phos groups of the 1,3 biphosgly is added to ADP to make ATP (2 Total)

Step Eight- The one remaining phos-group of 3-phosgly is relocated by phosphoceromatase

Step Nine- Enolase removes H2O making 2 phos-pyruvate (PEP)

Step Ten- Pyruvate kinase takes phos from PEP thus making 2 ATP & 2 Pyruvate

Quick Overview

Input: 2 ATP, 2 NAD+, & 1 Glucose

Output: 2 Pyruvate, 4 ATP, 2 NADH

Net- 2 ATP, 2 Pyruvate, 2 NADH

Pyruvate Oxidation (substrate-level)

Consist of 4 Steps

Step One- Pyruvate from cytosol (glycolysis) go into the mitochondria

Step Two- The pyruvate gets oxidized & electrons are transferred to NAD+ to NADH

Step Three- Carbon Dioxide is lost, CoA enzyme is added

Acetyl CoA is formed

Quick Overview

Input: 2 Pyruvate, CoA enzyme, 2 NAD+

Output: 2 NADH, 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 CO2

Citric Acid Cycle
(substrate-level)

Consist of 8 Steps

3 Key Steps

1st Step- Acetyl CoA is added to oxaloacetate forming citrate

3rd Step- Isocitrate is oxidized & NAD+ is reduced forming NADH+, CO2 is produced

8th Step- Malate is oxidized, NAD+ converts to NADH, oxloacetate is reformed (restarts cycle)

Quick Overview

Input: 1 Acetyl CoA, 3 NAD+

Output: 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH, 2 CO2

Oxidative Phosphorylation
(oxidative)

2 Main Components

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Made up of 4 Complexes, I, II, III, & IV

Electrons from NADH & FADH are transported through complexes & release free energy as electrons travel

Free energy is used to pump H+ ions through to the inter-membrane, creating a H+ concentration gradient (complex's also serve as pumps)

Finally, after traveling through complexes & losing energy, electrons are added to oxygen (reducing it)

Chemiosmosis

ATP synthase facilitates diffusion of H+,
b/c of the gradient so H+ is going from high to low (Intermembrane -> Matrix)

Energy is released by the movement of H+ down the gradient, allowing the ATP synthase to add phosphate to ATP to ADP

Quick Overview

Input: NADH & FADH

Output: 26-28 ATP

Cellular Respiration
(W/O Presence of Oxygen)

Alcohol Fermentation

3 Steps

1st- Glycolysis occurs (even w/o oxygen) and 2 Pyruvate form.

2nd- Pyruvate forms 2 Acetaldehyde which reduced to ethanol (2 NAD+ -> NADH)

When reduced, NADH donates electrons so it can be recycled for glycolysis.

Quick Overview

Input: 2 ATP, Glucose, 2 NAD+

Net Output: 2 Ethanol, 2 NADH (Get recycled), 2 ATP, 2 CO2

Lactic Acid Fermentation

3 Steps

Glycolysis occurs (w/o Oxygen)
forms 2 Pyruvate and net 2 ATP

2 Pyruvate us reduced by NADH to form Lactic Acid

NADH gives up electron so it can be recycled and be reused in glycolysis

Quick Overview

Input: 1 Glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+

Net Output: 2 Lactic Acid, 2 NAD+, 2 ATP

Location

Photosynthesis occurs within the leaf, within the mesophyll, within the chloroplast.

Mesophyll: The interior tissue of the leaf

Each mesophyll cell contains 30-40 chloroplasts

Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll: light harvesting pigments

Chlorophyll has chlorophyll a and b

Chlorophyll a contains CH3, chlorophyll b contains CHO

The structure contains a head and a tail.

Porphyrin ring: light-absorbing “head” of molecule, there is a magnesium atom at the center

Hydrocarbon tail: interacts with hydrophobic regions of proteins inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts

Consists of PS1 and PS2 along with components of the electron transport chain

H+s are pumped into the thylakoid space, so inside of thylakoid a lot H+ are present

H+ get back out of the thylakoid down their concentration gradient.

The energy from movement down the gradient is used to form ADP

6 CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H2O 
C6H12O6 + 18 ADP + 18 Pi + 12 NADP+ 6 O2 + 6 H2O + 12 H+

Plant uses water from soil, light from sun, co2 from atmosphere to form organic compounds

STAGE ONE

Solar energy is converted to chemical energy through light reactions.

In order to provide electrons and protons, H2O is split.

O2 is released as a waste product

NADP+ reduces to NADPH

photophosphorylation generates ATP.

photophosphorylation: The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of chemiosmosis, using a proton-motive force generated across the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast or the membrane of certain prokaryotes during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

STAGE TWO

With the help of the NADPH and ATP produced by the light reactions, The Calvin cycle produces sugar from CO2

Through carbon fixation CO2 is initially incorporated into an organic molecule

In order to reduce CO2, NADPH provides electrons needed, and ATP provides the necessary chemical energy.

The Calvin Cycle

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Phase 2: Reduction

Phase 3: Regeneration of CO2 acceptor

Takes place in the stroma

Uses ATP and NADPH to convert
CO2 to the sugar G3P

Returns ADP, inorganic phosphate, and  NADP+ to the light reactions

Light Reactions

Occur in the thylakoids of the chloroplasts.

Are carried out by molecules in the
thylakoid membranes

Convert light energy to the chemical
energy of ATP and NADPH

Split H2O and release O2 to the
atmosphere

Almost the reversed process of cellular respiration

It's different because Electrons are extracted from water and transferred to CO2. Oxidizing H2O and reducing CO2

As electrons are transferred down the ETC, energy is released which is used to pump H+ against their concentration gradient

Photosystems

Photosystem: reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes.

two kinds of photosystems embedded in the thylakoid membrane

Photosystem II (PS II)-The reaction-center chlorophyll a absorbs at 680

Photosystem I (PS I) The reaction-center chlorophyll a absorbs at 700 nm

Used in cyclic electron flow

The flow of electrons converts to cyclic when there is excess NADPH.

As electrons in PS1 are transferred to Fd, they are recruited to the cytochrome complex and plastocyanin molecules of the electron transport chain.

The movement of electrons leads to formation of ATP by photophosphorylation

Both use in non-cyclic flow of electrons

The light-harvesting complexes transfer the energy of photons to the reaction center.

In the reaction center, chlorophyll a transfers an excited electron to the primary electron acceptor

Light-harvesting complexes: pigment molecules bound to proteins

Reaction-center complex: an association of proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor.

Signal binds to GPCR & activates it

Floating topic

Activated GPCR then binds to G protein, which binds to GTP (activating G protein)

Activated G protein then binds to enzyme called adenylyl cyclase

Adenylyl cyclase then converts ATP into cAMP (2nd messenger)

cAMP activates protein kinase A which causes a cellular response

After cAMP activates PKA, it is converted into AMP by enzyme phosphodiesterase