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Phylogenetic Species Concept
Morphological Species Concept
Biological Species Concept
environmental conservation of organisms
increasing crop yields and disease and pest resistance
tracing the transmission of disease and the development and testing of possible treatments
the discovery of new drugs, hormones, and other medical products
Organism - any complete living thing.
Organ system - a group of organs that perform a common function.
Organ - a group of tissues that perform a common function.
Tissue - a group of cells that perform a common function.
Living things organize cells at several levels:
Living things must be able to organize simple substances into complex ones.
Both molecular and cellular organization.
In multicellular organisms, specialization increases until some cells do only certain things
Single-cell organisms have everything they need to be self-sufficient.
Heterotrophic – can not make their own food
Autotrophic – can make their own food
Multicellular – made up of many cells
Unicellular – single-celled; made up of one cell
Eukaryotic – cells that contain a nucleus
Prokaryotic – cells that lack a nucleus
Animals (Animalia)
live in diverse environments
Plants (Plantae)
Cell wall of cellulose
most live on land
autotrophic
multicellular
Fungi
Cell wall made of chitin
include yeast (unicellular), molds, mildews, and mushrooms
heterotrophic
most are multicellular (yeast-unicellular)
Protista (Protists)
Some have a cell wall
some are autotrophs, others are heterotrophs
most are unicellular, others are multicellular
eukaryotic
includes any organism that can not be classified as a animal, plant, or fungus
the “odds and ends” kingdom;
Cell wall made of peptidoglycan
They are unicellular, prokaryotic, some are autotrophic and others are heterotrophic.
They are found everywhere on Earth except extreme environments.
found in thermal vents, hot springs, very salty water, swamps, and the intestines of cows
they thrive in the most extreme environments on Earth; they are often referred to as “extremophiles”
known as “ancient bacteria”; they are the most primitive type of organisms
Cell walls of different compositions
They are different from bacteria in the structure and chemical makeup of their cells.
they are unicellular, prokaryotic and some are autotrophic and others heterotrophic
3. Inner membrane Composition
2. Reproduce similarly/binary fission
1. Circular DNA and ribosomes
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are a result of prokaryotes engulfing purple bacteria ( aerobic bacterium) and photosynthetic bacteria(cyanobacterium)
The entire name must be EITHER typed in italics OR underlined if written by hand
The second name is the species name → this is NOT capitalized
The first name is the Genus name → This is capitalized
Example: Homo sapiens - humans
Species name
Genus name
Kill bacteria Inhibit bacterial growth
The same toxin produced by C. botulium is used for cosmetic purposes to prevent wrinkles and prevent excessive sweating
Causes botulism, a type of food poisoning
Produce necessary vitamins
Aid in digestion
Improve the look of wrinkles
Cause disease
Sour milk
Spoil food
Strepto- (arranged in chains)
Staphylo- (arranged in clusters (think: grapes))
Diplo- (arranged in pairs)
Some live in colonies or link together to form filaments
Use sulfur as their source of energy
Grow best at temperatures above 80°C
Live in hot sulfur springs, volcanoes, deep sea vents.
Heat and acid-loving archaea
To prevent an exodus of water from the cell, halophiles offset the high salt in the environment by accumulating such compounds as potassium and glycine-betaine. This allows a balance of salts inside and outside of the cell preventing water from flowing outward as would be the case if lower salt levels existed within the cells.
The caretonoids give them a pinkish color,
Incorporate pigmentation in the form of bacteriorhodopsin, for photosynthesis, and carotenoids for UV protection.
Live in salt pools (15% salt)
Salt-loving archaea
Methane is the waste product
Use CO2 gas, and H2S as a source of energy
Live in oxygen-free environments (swamps, marshes, sewage disposal plants)
Methane producing archaea
Volcanoes, piles of hot coal, in rocks deep below the Earth’s surface
Hot springs, sea-floor vents, alkaline or acidic waters, saline environments
Complete Dominance
The only way a short pea plant can be produced is if an offspring inherits two recessive alleles
In our example tall is completely dominant over short
Complete dominance means that one allele is always dominant over the other
Both of the examples that we examined demonstrate complete dominance
Punnett Squares
Let’s explore how a monohybrid cross works by using a Punnett square with an example.
To illustrate how traits are inherited Mendel utilized a Punnett square, which is a tool used to show the various combinations of alleles that result when two parents mate.
This is referred to as a monohybrid cross
When Mendel studied pea plants he initially examined the inheritance of one trait at a time.
Principle of Dominance
Law of Segregation
Each allele comes from one parent’s sex cell that was formed through the process of meiosis
Two alleles code for a trait (e.g. Yy)
Developed by Mendel
When organisms are crossbred only dominant traits will be expressed
Monohybrid Cross
Dominant and Recessive Alleles
Recessive allele
E.g. w is used for a continuous hairline
Designated with a lower case letter
Only expressed in the absence of a dominant allele
Dominant allele
E.g. W is used for widow’s peak
Designated with a capital letter
Expressed when present
From the experiment Mendel concluded that the trait for tall plants was dominant and the trait for short plants was recessive.
Cross-Pollinating Plants
It is through this process Mendel controlled reproduction of the pea plants.
Pollen from another plant is directly applied to purple flower.
The stamens which contain pollen is removed from one plant. This is important to prevent self-pollination.
Crossing the Parent Generation
The parent plants made up the parent generation (P generation)
Mendel cross-pollinated pure-bred plants that were different for one trait e.g. height
Pure breeding Plants
Pure breeding plants always have offspring with the same traits as the parents.
This plant was ideal for several reasons:
Many observable traits to study e.g. flower colour, pea shape
Reproduction was controllable
Could self-pollinate or cross-pollinate
Grew and reproduced quickly
readily available
utilized the pea plant to study the inheritance of traits
Laid down the groundwork for further studies in the mechanisms of inheritance
Became a monk and studied hereditary in pea plants
attended the University of Vienna
Was going to be a high school teacher
Studied math and botany
Recessive alleles are described using lower case. (do not code for proteins)
Dominant alleles are described using a capital letter. (code for proteins)
Causes of Mutations
High Temperature
Chemicals- asbestos, formaldehyde
Radiation- X rays, UV damage
Mutagens
May be Spontaneous
Chromosomal Alterations
Few mutations resulting in chromosomal alterations actually are passed on because Zygote often dies
Homologous chromosomes do not pair or separate correctly: Down’s Syndrome.
Very common in plants, but can happen in all organisms
Part of chromosome may be lost
May occur in meiosis.
Types of Mutations
Frame-Shift Mutation - A single base pair is added or deleted. The entire strand shifts over. Entire protein is changed.
Point mutation- One change in a nucleotide can change the entire meaning.
The dog bit the car.
The dog bit the cat.
Mutations in body cells:
Impaired function of the cell (loss of function) or impaired cell division (cancer)
Not passed to offspring but may be harmful to the individual
A mutations in reproductive cells means the gene becomes part of the organism and can result in:
Death of the organism
Structural or functional problems
Non working proteins
New trait
Mutations- caused by errors in replication, transcription, cell division or by external agents.
Similar to a computer binary code 001100101000111110
64 possible combinations of the 20 AA.
20 AA act like the alphabet for DNA (26 letters make millions of words.)
Nucleotide sequence transcribed from DNA to mRNA is the genetic message. The complete info for life.
There are also STOP codons and START codons
Remember CODONS? (the sets of 3 that DNA is arranged in)
There are 20 possible combinations and as a result 20 amino acids
These code for Amino acids
mRNA leaves the nucleus with the code for the protein
Contains URACIL(U) vs. of thymine (T)
Ribose sugar vs. deoxyribose
Single stranded vs. double stranded
RNA differs from DNA in 3 ways:
So how does DNA get its message to the rest of the body?
THE MESSENGER =mRNA
DNA needs a messenger to travel to the cell (ribosomes via rough ER) to make a protein and then the protein can travel all over the body.
DNA does not leave the nucleus.
Proteins fold into complex 3-D shapes and become key regulators – forming muscle tissue, enzymes and controlling chemical reactions.
This information is put to work through proteins.
Sequencing of nucleotides in DNA contain information.
ALL organisms undergo DNA replication.
Before the cell can divide it first makes a copy of its chromosomes through DNA replication
Each cell in the body has a copy of DNA that was present in the original fertilized egg of the zygote.
Order matters!
SANTA and SATAN same letters different order
SEQUENCING
A-T-T-G-A-C has different information than T-C-C-A-A-A
A cattail, a cat and a catfish are all different organism composed of proteins with the same 4 nucleotides. The difference?
It is these proteins and combination of proteins that give us a unique phenotype.
This unique sequence of bases will code for the production of a unique protein.
Each unique gene has a unique sequence of bases.
A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein.
Each nucleotide consists of:
Nitrogenous base
Pentose sugar
Phosphate group
A molecule of DNA is made up of millions of tiny subunits called Nucleotides.
DNA consists of two molecules that are arranged into a ladder-like structure called a Double Helix.
Black Chicken x White 🡪 Speckled Chicken
22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes
The Female Gamete is the Ovum (ova = pl.) and is produced in the female gonad the Ovaries
The Male Gamete is the Sperm and is produced in the male gonad the Testes
Sexual reproduction is any reproduction that does involve meiosis.
Individuals that are better adapted will survive and perpetuate the species
Sexually reproducing organisms are better able to adapt to changing environments because of differences between individuals
Requires more energy and time than asexual reproduction
(offspring are genetically different from parent)
Genetic information from parent cells are combined to produce a new organism
Asexual reproduction is any reproduction that does NOT involve meiosis.
3. There are no specialized structures required by the parent.
2. Often produces many offspring rapidly
1. A single parent gives rise to offspring that are genetically identical to the original parent (clones)
Coevolution
Co-evolution is likely to happen when different species have close ecological interactions with one another
Mutualistic species
Competitive species
Predator/prey and parasite/host
Used to describe cases when two (or more) species reciprocally affect each other’s evolution
The evolution of the morphology of a plant may affect the morphology of a herbivore that eats that plant, which may affect the evolution of the plant, which might affect the evolution of the herbivore and so on, and so on
Convergent
An evolutionary pattern when two or more species become increasingly similar in phenotype in response to similar selective pressures
species of different ancestry begin to share analogous (similar in appearance but different evolutionary origins) traits because of a shared environment or other selection pressure
Adaptive Radiation
Species “radiates out” from common ancestor
Commonly occurs after mass extinction
One original species gives rise to three or more species.
Occurs when divergent evolution occurs in rapid succession, or simultaneously, among a number of populations
Divergent
An evolutionary pattern where two species become increasingly different
On a smaller scale, it is responsible for the evolution of humans and apes from a common primate ancestor
On a large scale, divergent evolution is responsible for the creation of the current diversity of life on earth from the first living cells.
Often happens when two closely related species diversify to new habitats
Result of differing selective pressures or genetic drift
Change does not demonstrate progress (improvement)...it is simply change.
Each living species has descended, with changes, from other species over time.
Natural selection does not demonstrate progress, but merely results from the ability of species to survive local conditions and to pass on the traits that helped them survive.
Individuals with traits that are not well suited to their environment either die or leave few offspring.
Evolution occurs when good traits build up in a population over many generations and bad traits are eliminated by the death of the individuals.
The individuals with the best traits / adaptations will survive and have the opportunity to pass on it’s traits to offspring.
Ex: When a predator finds its prey, it is due to the prey’s physical characteristics, like color or slow speed, not the alleles (BB, Bb)
Natural selection acts on the phenotype (physical appearance), not the genotype (genetic makeup)
Natural selection occurs through “Survival of the fittest”
Not all individuals survive to adulthood
Fitness: the ability to survive and reproduce
Individuals COMPETE for limited resources:
Food, water, space, mates
The more variation of types of species in an habitat, the more likely at least some will survive
EX: Dinosaurs replaced by mammals
Since the environment changes….
EX: If everyone is the same, they are all vulnerable to the same environmental changes or diseases
The more variation within a species, the more likely it will survive
Adaptation: an inherited trait that increases an organism’s chances of survival
Each individual has a unique combination of inherited traits.
More individuals are born than can be sustained by their environment, which creates a struggle for existence
Each species produces more offspring than survive
Could species have been modified from an ancestral form that arrived on the Galapagos Islands shortly after the islands were formed?
Why did the Galapagos species so closely resemble organisms on the adjacent South American coastline?
Why would living and fossilized organisms that looked similar be found in the same region?
Why were all types of organisms not randomly distributed?
Finch beaks were adapted to the food source on each island.
Finches found on islands resembled continental finches but were different in some characteristics.
He found fossils of extinct animals that looked similar , but not identical, to living animals.
The flora and fauna were different in different regions.
Wrote a book called “The Origin of Species” to propose his theory of natural selection, which is a mechanism for evolution
As the ship’s naturalist, he made observations of organisms in South America and the Galapagos Islands
Darwin went on a 5-year trip around the world on the ship, the HMS Beagle
Proposed a mechanism for evolution, natural selection
Father of Evolution
chickens bred to produce more eggs
cows bred to increase muscle for meat consumption
cats bred for appearance
to select for certain characteristics in some individuals and select against certain characteristics in others
change in competition
change in predators
light level change’
temperature change
3. disruptive selection
Large lobsters mate by force and small lobsters sneak in female populations in alpha male territory
Example - mating lobsters
Select against average or intermediate phenotype because it is less fit than the extremes
Selects for (favours) 2 extreme phenotypes that each have specific advantages
2. directional selection
Selects against other phenotypes
Selects for (favours) one extreme phenotype
Populations genetic variance shifts towards a new phenotype when exposed to environmental change
1. stabilizing selection
Results in a decrease of populations genetic variance
Selects against extreme phenotypes
Selects for (favours) average phenotypes
Balance of stasis and punctuated events
During periods of stasis change is slow, however, sudden events (punctuated events) i.e. a flood or volcanic eruption can put huge selective pressures on a population requiring a rapid rate of evolution in a short time frame
That evolution occurs both gradually and in small punctuated events
Traits cannot be gained just because they would be useful
Doesn’t reflect how we inherit traits
Body parts that are not used would be lost over time
Traits acquired during an organism’s life can passed on to offspring
Organisms become increasingly better adapted to their environments
Theory states that species increased in complexity over time until they reached a level of perfection
Suggested that catastrophes killed many species (catastrophism) and that these events corresponded to the boundaries between the fossil strata
Discovered that the oldest fossils are in the deepest layer
Discovered that each stratum (layer) of rock held a unique group of fossil species
Doesn’t take into account that changes can also be slow and subtle, specifically changes within a population
Theory of catastrophism states that natural events like floods and volcanic eruptions killed species living in a region and allows species from neighboring areas to repopulate an area, resulting in change
Noted that species are found in particular rock layers and that new species appear and disappear over time
Developed Paleontology - the study of ancient life through fossils
Doesn’t take into account varying geological processes like natural disasters, catastrophes, climate change, impact of human activity
Provided a geological perspective that inspired Darwin
Slow subtle processes that happen over a long period of time lead to substantial changes in the long term
Theory states that geological processes operate at the same rate today as they have in the past
Occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area
Happens when gene flow is diminished by:
Sexual selection
habitat differentiation
Polyploidy
Less common than allopatric speciation
Occurs when part of a population enters a new habitat bordering the range of the parent species
Some gene flow may occur between populations in border zone
Gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations
Hybrid breakdown
the first generation hybrids are fertile, but when these hybrids mate, offspring of the next generation are sterile or weak.
Hybrid sterility
even though the hybrid is healthy and vigorous, it is not able to reproduce
Hybrid inviability
even though the zygote is created, it fails to develop to maturity due to genetic incompatibility
Gametic isolation
two populations exchange sperm and eggs but rarely fuse to form a zygote
Mechanical Isolation
two populations do not exchange alleles because they are anatomically incompatible
Ecological/Habitat Isolation
two populations do not exchange alleles with each other because they are in different geographic places or at different places within the same ecosystem
Temporal Isolation
two populations do not exchange alleles because they are only available to exchange alleles at different times of year or even of the day
Behavioral isolation
two populations do not exchange alleles because they do not respond to each others mating rituals
Often, males and females in a population have drastically different physical characteristics such as colourful plumage in male birds and antlers in male deers - this difference is called sexual dimorphism
As homozygous genotypes become more common, harmful recessive alleles are more likely to be expressed
Close relatives share similar genotypes, so inbreeding leads to increases in frequency of homozygous genotypes
This is in contrast to random mating where breeding partners are randomly selected - the likelihood of specific genotypes mating is based on the allele frequencies within a population
The Effect of non-random mating is that it increases the proportion of homozygous individuals in a population
is the changes in gene distribution that result from a rapid decrease in the population size
Since the survivors have only a fraction of the original population alleles, the gene pool has lost diversity
Starvation, disease, human activity, and natural disasters can quickly reduce the size of a large population
is a change in a gene pool that occurs when a few individuals start a new isolated population
Occurs frequently on islands
Diversity in the new gene pool will be limited
These founders will carry some, but not all, of the alleles from original population
Often, new populations are formed by only a few individuals, or founders
Think of flipping a coin 1000 times versus 10 times
Sample size can greatly impact the gene pool of a population - the smaller the population, the more likely that the future generations won’t reflect the parent generation
We have two alleles for each gene. These alleles "work" together in determine what our hair colour, height, eye colour etc will be.
These variations of a gene are called alleles.
Whenever we look at any trait, such as hair colour, we have variations of that trait (e.g. red, black, blonde and brown).
Genes are segments of DNA that code for a specific trait, such as hair colour, eye colour, height, eyelash length etc.
fossil records show that fish are the oldest vertebrates (animals with backbones) and it isn’t until more newer layers of rock do you find other vertebrates (reptiles, mammals, birds, etc.).
Fossils appear in chronological order in the rock layers.
Fossils found in young layers of rock (rock closer to the surface) are more similar to species living today than fossils found in older deeper layers of rock.
Humans (11:59:30)
First mammals
Dinosaurs
Reptiles
Insects
Fish, then
Cellular respiration is a process where we take glucose and convert it into ATP (a usable energy molecule for our cells)
Protects us from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun
These bacteria are distant relatives to the cyanobacteria that we find on Earth today
These bacteria are able to conduct photosynthesis and produce sugar to survive
Archaebacteria
Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen
Elements key to life on Earth are present
Various types of archaebacteria such as:
Halophiles – can live in environments that are very salty i.e. dead sea and pink sea salt formed from bacteria
Methanogens – can live in methane rich environments i.e. the bacteria found in the South African mines
Acidophiles – can live in acidic environments i.e. snotites and phlegm balls
Bacteria capable of living in extreme environments
Though to first evolve 3.8 Billions of years ago
No oceans
This period of time was thought t o aid in the formation of amino acids
Earth was frequently hit by asteroids and meteors
Atmosphere filled with carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
Catastrophic beginning with lots of collisions (ie. Mars sized object hit the Earth to form our Moon)
Anus: Controls discharge of waste (feces).
Rectum
Collects waste for excretion.
Chemical digestion is finished at the large intestine.
Absorption
Lacteals: are small vessels that transport fat to the circulatory system
Microvilli: are a microscopic projection on cell membrane
Villi: small finger-like projects that extend into the small intestine which increase surface area for absorption.
Gall Bladder:
Releases bile when chyme is present in the small intestine.
Stores bile (if stomach empty)
Liver
Recycles damaged red blood cells
Responsible for detoxifying blood (ex. Alcohol)
Removes excess sugar from blood and stores it.
Produces bile for physical digestion of lipids.
Colon is largest part of large intestine; stores waste so that water as well as some inorganic salts, minerals and vitamins can be absorbed.
Cecum – storage (chyme); ends with appendix.
Wider and shorter than the small intestine.
Small Intestine Absorption
Fats
Lipase is broken down into absorbable fat that enters the lacteals of the villi in the small intestine
Lipase is an enzyme produced and released by the pancreas
Bile is chemically digested with the use of lipase
Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder
Are physically broken down from large fat droplets into smaller fat droplets with the use of bile
Amino acids are absorbed into the capillaries of the villus
Trypsin, an enzyme produced and released by the pancreas breaks down polypeptides into amino acids
Broken down into amino acids
complex carbohydrates are broken down into simple carbohydrates like glucose with the use of an enzyme called amylase
these simple sugars (monosaccharides) are absorbed into the capillaries of the villus
amylase is produced and released by the pancreas
nutrients are broken down and absorbed
3 Parts
Ileum: less absorption occurs here, unabsorbed particles are pushed through.
Jejunum: has many folds that continue breakdown and absorption of remaining proteins and carbohydrates
Duodenum: most digestion occurs here
Food broken down into chyme(thick liquid).
juices
Pepsinogens
enzymes that when exposed to a low pH (1-3) such as conditions in the stomach, turns into its active form pepsin which is a enzyme the digests proteins
Gastric juice
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) mucus, pepsinogens and other materials
Movement of food in and out of stomach is regulated by sphincters
Pyloric sphincter: regulates food from stomach to small intestine
Esophageal sphincter: regulates food from esophagus (acts like a valve)
J-Shape organ that can store up to 1.5 L of food
Peristalsis: rhythmic, wavelike contraction of smooth muscle that moves food through the esophagus
Protects / prevents food from entering the windpipe.
Covers the trachea
Divides food and air
Swallowing (gag/swallow reflex)
Saliva
At this point food can be “tasted”
Dissolves food particles
Lubricates food to be swallowed
Contains amylase which breaks down complex to simpler carbohydrates
Fluid secreted by salivary glands
Tongue
Helps swallow (movement of food)
Has taste buds.
Strong muscle.
Teeth
Used for mechanical/physical digestion (mastication). They are necessary for breaking food into smaller particles.
molars: crushing
pre-molars: grinding
canine: sharp for tearing
incisors: specific for cutting
4. Elimination
The removal of waste food materials from the body.
3. Absorption
The transport of digested nutrients to tissues of the body.
2. Digestion
smaller components by enzymes.
The breakdown of complex organic molecules into
1. Ingestion
The taking in of nutrients
Chemical: enzymes and water break down food so that it can eventually be absorbed by body cells.
Physical/Mechanical: is the act of breaking down food into smaller pieces using teeth (mastication), as well as contractions of the stomach.
Vitamins
We do not obtain energy from vitamins; however, some vitamins are necessary to run energy-related processes in cells.
Vitamins play many different roles in metabolism.
Minerals
Most minerals can be found in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and meats. Highly processed foods may be deficient.
Sodium, potassium, zinc, iron, calcium,magnesium among the minerals that humans need.
Proteins
Examples: insulin, enzymes, hemoglobin, collagen, antibodies
Amino acids from digested proteins are used by cells to build all the proteins that our body needs. Proteins provide structure and support, speed up chemical reactions, provide immunity, transport ions
Carbohydrates
Examples: fructose, lactose, cellulose, glycogen, maltose, glucose
Glucose is needed by all body cells as energy. Nerve cells must have glucose to operate.
Sugars and starch are the carbohydrates that humans can digest. “Fiber” is indigestible carbohydrates, such as cellulose and inulin.
Lipids
Lipids are used for storing energy, making cell membranes, and synthesizing steroid hormones.
Lipids are energy dense, containing 9 calories per gram.
Examples:are fats, oils, and waxes.
Images and data from the body’s movement is combined with computer software to create a 3D model
Walking in a lab attached to infrared markers on pelvis and knees
Using a CT scanner, images are taken
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Software: creates pictures out of the data
Computer: collects data picked up by the antenna
Antenna: detects radio signals given off by the water molecules
Magnets: causes water molecules to line up in one direction and spin around to give off energy
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Diaphragm
Dome shaped, thin, muscular
Increases and decreases volume of chest cavity
Pleural membrane
Filled with fluid that reduces friction between lungs and chest cavity during inhalation
Reduces friction between lungs and chest cavity
Surrounds lungs and lines chest cavity
Aveoli
Coated with “surfactant” (a lipoprotein) to prevent sticking.
Single cell layer, surrounded by capillaries.
Very thin tiny sacs (large surface area).
~150 million per lung!
Site of external respiration (gas exchange).
Bronchioles
NO cartilage rings
Smooth muscle walls
Many branched tubes, smallest passageways, to increase surface area
Able to change diameter to regulate air flow
Many branches carry air to alveoli
Bronchi
Full cartilage rings for support
Each carries air into lungs and splits into many bronchioles
One goes to each lung.
Trachea
Semicircular cartilage rings to prevent collapse -Cilia and mucus
~10-12cm long
Filter particles
Passage of air into 2 bronchi, “windpipe”.
Larynx
“Adam’s Apple” – a thick band of cartilage that surrounds and protects the larynx.
Two flaps of cartilage, vibrate when air passes through
Contains the vocal chords – for sound, aka “voice box”. Opening to lungs
Epiglottis
Small, flexible flap of tissue
A flap that prevents food from entering the lungs by blocking the glottis (opening of trachea)
Pharynx
Cilia in top portion move food towards mouth to be swallowed
Connects nasal and oral cavity to larynx
Nose and Mouth
As your heart relaxes to refill, blood pressure is at its lowest point.
as your heart contracts to push blood into your arteries, your blood pressure is at its highest point.
help blood form a clot at the site of a wound. A clot seals a cut and prevents excessive blood loss.
help fight disease and infection by attacking germs that enter the body.
carry oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide away from them.
92% water. It transports blood solids, nutrients, hormones, and other materials.
Very thin, small red blood cells travel in single file in capillaries
Site of gas, waste, and nutrient exchange
Carry deoxygenated blood
Carry blood from the body towards the heart
Have thicker walls because the pressure in the arteries is highe
Carry oxygenated blood
Carry blood away from the heart
It picks up carbon dioxide and waste products.
It carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells.
Systemic circulation provides a functional blood supply to all body tissue.
transports oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where blood picks up a new oxygen supply. Then it returns oxygen rich blood to the left atrium.
blood is pumped around the body in a network of vessels (for collection, distribution and exchange) blood circulates in only one direction Gases and nutrients must pass through walls of blood vessels to reach cells
blood bathes the cells directly Moves through muscle contractions
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ethylene gas causes all other to ripen
released ethylene gas
one spoiled
Gibberellins
cytokinins
Auxins
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Thigmotropism
The response will continue resulting in a “winding” effect
The side of a plant in contact with a surface of a stimulus will produce auxins on the non-contact side, producing growth
Thigmotropism is the growth of a plant in response to contact
Gravitropism
Plant’s response will be to return to the upward position
The stem demonstrates negative response by growing against gravity
The roots demonstrate positive response by growing towards gravitational pull
Gravitropism is a plants natural growth response to the effects of gravity
Phototropism
Less auxins produced on the side of the plant towards the light
Phototropism is a growth response of a stem towards light, so that it can receive the maximum amount of light for photosynthesis
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some plants do not obtain enough nutrients from the soil and consume insects such as the Venus fly trap and the pitcher plant
competition for sunlight results in some plants called epiphytes that grow on trees with trailing roots such as orchids, some mosses and ferns
great competition for pollinators by use of complex flower structures and scents
Waxy skin to reduce water loss
Spines prevent predators from getting to the water
Have accordion pleats to allow the plant to expand
Catci are capable to storing large quantities of water e.g. 6 m tall cactus can store 400 L of water
Long shallow root systems
faster lifecycle to take advantage of the limited sunlight
built in antifreeze to withstand the cold
Roots are shorter and the plants are shorter
mosses, lichens, trees and shrubs live here
Most abundant plant form on Earth
Best adapted to the various climates on Earth
Play a large role in feeding people
Fruits are designed to disperse seeds
Plants bear fruits
Often called flowering plants (but not all of them are flowering plants)
Wide spread root systems (anchor themselves and helps to get nutrients)
Tend to be found in harsh environments, found worldwide
Generally trees
Requires pollen to produce
Do not produce seeds or fruit
Most are cone bearing
Most have long, thin needles (these are their leaves)
Seedless plants do not have seeds and are spread by windblown spores. They tend to live in moist areas and examples include ferns and horsetails.
Seeded plants contain an embryo surrounded by a seed coat. Inside the seed is nutrients that help feed it as it grows.
Select as needed:
No system of vessels to transport water and nutrients (xylem and phloem) No true leaves, roots or stems Depend on diffusion, osmosis and active transport to get nutrients Need to grow close to water (for reproduction and growth) Grow close to the surface and when they die they leave soil for plants to grow
A vascular plant has specialized tissue that helps to transport water and nutrients Most plants are vascular to transport water and nutrients(xylem and phloem) Have roots, leaves and stems ability to live away from major water sources e.g. ponds, lakes Ex. Flowers, trees, shrubs and grasses
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When preyed on it will releases SOS signal that predators will take care of
Tobacco plant uses nicotine poisons to induce seizures, paralysis, adn morality
Knows which plant it likes more
Obligate Parasites lives off host
Producing it's own food
Plant roots slow down when passing nutrients for efficiency
Plant roots accelerate growth to travel to patches of nutrients
Growth towards the sun
