STEP 3: Regeneration
this is the regneration of
RUBP and the Co2 acceptor.
this yields 3 ADP and 3 ATP
Co2 then goes to the sheath cells
where is it fixed by rubisco. It makes
its way to the Calvin cycle then to
be made into sugars.
STEP THREE:
Phosphofructokinase transfers a phosphate group from ATP to the opposite end of Fructose 6-Phosphate creating Fructose 1,6-Biphosphate
c
Phosphorylation!
Forms ATP through Substrate-Level
Glycolysis:
harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to form two molecules of pyruvate
STEP 1: Carbon Fixation
includes the addition of CO2
from the atmosphere. This is
done by an enzyme names
Rubisco. This then creates
a 6-carbon intermediate. This
then splits into a 2 molecule
3 carbons, forming 6 NADPH
AEROBIC
CELLULAR RESPIRTATION
FERMENTATION
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Alcohol Fermentation
usually occurs in hot, dry
conditions. For this to happen,
there must be a low concentration
of low CO2. The enzyme present
(rubisco) favors O2, inturn the
enzymes releases CO2
the electron acceptor
NAHP+ is reduced to NADPH
this helps generate ATP by
photophosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Citric Acid Cycle
PART TWO:
CHEMIOSMOSIS ATP SYNTHESIS
Facilitated diffusion of H+ ions with the help of a membrane transport protein called ATP SYNTHESIS allows H+ ions within the cytoplasm to go back down their concentration gradient
The energy provided by the proton gradient is used to add an inorganic phosphate to ADP in order to form ATP!
OUTPUT:
Around 26-28 ATP
PART ONE:
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Complex 1,3, and 4 are proton pumps that carry electrons (transferred from NADH) while releasing free energy allowing H+ to be carried down their concentration gradient until released in the cytoplasm
the reaction-center complex, to
transfer the energy of photons. This
overall reaction is non-cyclic cycle. Electrons get excited, transfer energy and the reset back to there resting state.
the stomata is open at
night and turns CO2 into
organic acids
Step One:
Acetyl CoA adds a two carbon group to to Oxaloacetate, producing CITRATE
Step Two:
Citrate is converted to its isomer,
ISOCITRATE
the stomata closed during
the day, so CO2 is released
for the Calvin's Cycle use
2 Pyruvate molecules are reduce to form
2 Lactate using 2 NADH ---> NAD+ as the process recycles back NAD+ so glycolysis can continue
H2O is split to provide
electrons and proton (H+)
and O2 is released as a
waste product
e- are jumping to the more electronegative region until eventually reaching O2 to aid in the reduction of H2O
2 Pyruvate molecules form 2 acetaldehyde as CO2 is released. Reduction of electrons
from 2 NADH transforms 2 acetaldehyde molecules into 2 Ethanol, recycling NAD+ in the process so glycolysis can continue
STEP 2: Reduction
This product produces
G3P. A 5 molecules
continues to make
Ribulose Biphosphate
and 1 G3P to make sugars
1 glucose = 6CO2
Leaves are a major site
of photosynthesis. They
often contain stomata.
The stomata act as "bodyguards"
and allow CO2 in while O2 leaves
Chlorophyll is a light harvest pigment
molecule
Pyruvate Oxidation
OUTPUT:
2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O
2 ATP
2 NADH + 2H+
this process blocks CO2
fixation and photosynthesis.
This isn't beneficial to the plant
the stomata is partly closed
whatever CO2 left is used by
PEP carboxylase to make C4
carbon
2 pyruvate molecules per 1 glucose enter mitochondria where it looses electrons to transform NAD+ to NADH creating the Acetyl CoA molecule
Step Three:
Isocitrate undergoes an oxidation
reaction where CO2 is released and NAD+ is reduced to form NADH. The resulting compound is a-Ketoglutarate
PRODUCES:
NET GAIN FROM 1 ACETYL CoA:
3 NADH
1 ATP
1 FADH
Energy and Cell Communication
cell communication
receptors
intracellular
cytoplasm and nucleus
example:
steroid hormone interacting with intracellular receptor
5. mRNA is translated into a specific protein
4. bound protein acts as transcription factor, stimulating the transcription of the gene into mRNA.
3. hormone receptor protein enters nucleus and binds to specific genes
2. hormone binds to receptor protein in cytoplasm, activating it and creating a hormone receptor complex
1. hormone passes through plasma membrane
membrane
signal molecule is hydrophilic, it is the first messenger
needs the help of other molecules in the cell, they are the second messenger
ion chamber
channel remains closed until ligand binds to receptor
specific ions can flow through the channels and rapidly change the concentration of particular ions in a cell. It may directly affect the activity of the cell.
when ligand disassociates, the channel closes
phosphatases: enzymes that catalyze the removal of phosphate groups from proteins by hydrolysis
tyrosine kinase
Made from two polypeptides that dimerize when a signal molecule is bound to each polypeptide. Each polypeptide on dimerization functions as a kinase so it takes phosphate groups from ATP and adds it to the other polypeptide. This action is called autophosphorylation. When the phosphate groups are added to tyrosines, it is called tyrosine kinase receptor. It can interact with other proteins to bring out a response from the cell.
g-protein linked:
causes cells to function in different ways, depending on the type of cell
1. When the appropriate signaling molecule binds to the extracellular side
of the receptor, the receptor is activated and changes shape. Its cytoplasmic side then binds and activates a G protein. The activated G protein carries a GTP molecule.
2. The activated G protein leaves the receptor, diffuses along the membrane, and then binds to an enzyme, altering the enzyme’s shape and activity. Once activated, the enzyme can trigger the next step leading to a cellular response. Binding of signaling molecules is reversible. The
activating change in the GPCR, as well as the changes in the G protein and enzyme, are only temporary; these molecules soon become available for reuse. This leads to cellular response.
phosphatase: enzyme that removes a phosphate group from protein
protein kinase: enzymes that catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to proteins
stages:
3. response: activation of cellular response
2. transduction: relay molecule in a signal transduction pathway
1. reception (signal molcule)
polar and charged:
receptor is embedded in membrane
small and nonpolar:
diffuse through membrane
releasing signals
left: paracrine, right: synaptic
synaptic:
long distance, nerve cell signaling
paracrine:
short distance, cells must have the specific receptor to receive the signal
physical contact
attatching
diffusion
Photosynthesis
The Light Reaction
the calvin cycle
inputs CO2, ATP
and NADPH to make
sugar and release
ADP +P and NADP+
photosystems
photophophorylation
the creation
of ATP
PSII
PSI
excess NADPH can create
cyclic cycle. This system
activates by the ETC
CAM
photorespiration
C4 pathways
leaves
Chlorophyll
stomata
Cellular respiration
Without the presence of O2
In the presence of O2:
