means
means
means
means
like
synthesizes
reads
by
are
are
allows
increases
has
has
has
in
to
can be
carry instructions
uses the terms
is performed by
ends at
starts at
forms
which
is the
which says
second law
first law
using
which uses/provides
one of which is
which is the
which
is the
generate
which has
which has
passes electrons to
that are passed to
formed by
creates
example
occurs mainly in
using
and
producing
and
example
specifically
occurs mainly in
using
so that
can be
can be
anaerobic, occurs in cytoplasm of cells
aerobic
examples include
because
so
allows
because
helps
requires
defined as
because of
for example
defined as
help
characterized by
characterized by
found
creates
creates
characterized by
double bond, etc.
single bond
consists of
found in
examples include
characterized by
characterized by
examples include
characterized by
weak, intramolecular
strong, intramolecular
which
which
which
which
then
which
in which DNAP III
called
in which
for
for
requires help of
then
which
which
called a
then
which
and
by
then
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then
which
which states that
starts with
which follows the
Chargraff's Rule states
and
and
can self-replicate through the process of
functions to
contains sugar ribose
contains sugar deoxyribose
are monomers of (bonded by phosphodiester bonds)
function to
function to
have
forms
can be
can be
function to
held together by
characterized by
held together by
characterized by
held together by
consists of
function to
found in
includes
includes
in which
in which
include
include
have
have
includes
includes
made up of
made up of
is
made of
made of
made of
made of
contracts
expands
in plant cells
in animal cells
in plant cells
in animal cells
in plant cells
in animal cells
higher solute concentration than cell content
equal solute to that of cell content
lower solute concentration than cell content
in single-celled eukaryotes
in which
use
use
includes
includes
in which
in which
includes
includes
includes
requires
binding extracellular fluid (protein) to ligands
if material is liquid
if material is solid
using
using
caused by
in which
in which
includes
requires
can be
can be
contains
functions to provide
then transported to
where they are
leads to
leads to
leads to
lead to
is when
is when
is when
result in
result in
result in
types include
types include
and
where
stops at
then ribosome
specifically
binds to
consists of
consists of
consists of
to
carries
which is the
contains
contains
which is the
in place of
consists of
consists of
contains
directs synthesis of
proteins are secreted through
problems manifested as
starts with
function
provide
creates
controls
produce
live in swamps, marshes
hot environments
saline environments
that live in extreme environments
contain
which begins with
reducing
which
stored in
converted to
fixes CO2 to
involves
forms
brought to
converted to
fixes CO2 to
involves
to produce
uses
uses
uses
takes place in
to produce
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to produce
which is
contains
found in
uses
uses
takes place in
produces
has
can be modified into
can be modified into
includes
includes
which is the
ribose v. deoxyribose
decodes
only found in
energizes
plays a part in determining
make up
help
produces
found in
that binds to
consists of
like
intermolecular

Cells

most basic unit of life

Eukaryotes

Animal Cells

Plant Cells

Photosynthesis

Light-dependent Reactions

Thylakoid Membrane

Chloroplasts

Chlorophyll

Natural Pigment

Water

Energy from Sunlight

NADPH

ATP

O2

Calvin Cycle

Stroma

ATP

NADP

NADPH

Glucose

CO2

ADP + P

C4 Photosynthesis

PEP Carboxylase

Oxaloacetate

Malate

Bundle Sheath Cells

CO2 + Pyruvate

CAM Photosynthesis

PEP Carboxylase

Oxaloacetate

Malic Acid

Vacuole

takes place at night

H20 loss

Light Reactions

Photosystem II P680

Energy

Prokaryotes

Bacteria

peptidoglycan (in cell walls)

Archea

extremophiles

halophiles

thermophiles

methanogens

methane as waste product

Membranes

Cytoplasm

Organelles

Organelles found only in Eukaryotes

Nucleus

Contains genetic material

Mitochondria

ATP

evolved from bacteria

Golgi apparatus

Storage and Transport

Vacuoles

Storage

Lysosomes

Breaks down cell waste

ER

Rough Er

Storage for Protien

Smooth ER

Storage for protein
and lipids

Chloroplast

Produces Sugar

Found in Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells

Ribosomes

Protein Synthesis

DNA

RNA

Uracil

Thymine

mRNA

Codon

Start Codon

Stop Codon

tRNA

Anticodon

Amino Acids

Ribosomes

A site

B site

Exit Site

mRNA + tRNA

tRNA on P-site

moves along mRNA making polypeptide chain

Stop Codon

Protein is Released

all parts detach for each other

Point Mutations

Base Pair Substitution

Nonsense

premature stop codon is present

Silent

there is no effect on amino acid produced

Missense

wrong amino acid is produced

Insertions and Deletions

Frameshift Mutations

Immediate Nonsense

Extensive Missense

Missing/Extra Amino Acid

Rough ER

Glycosylated

Golgi Complex

Flagella

Located on the outside of the cell

Allows the cell to move

Prokaryotic Organelles

Are not membrane bound

Pili

Motion, attaching to objects,
transfer of genetic material

Nucleoid

genetic material, is not membrane bound

Transport

Active Transport (low to high concentration)

energy

smalls amounts of substances
pass through proteins (pumps)

Sodium Potassium Pump

3Na+ kicked out against
concentration gradient

2K+ are brought in against
concentration gradient

conformation/changes in shape

large amounts of substances
pass through membrane (vesicles)

Exocytosis

movement out
of the cell

Endocytosis

movement into
the cell

Phagocytosis

Pinocytosis

Receptor Mediated Endocytosis

Passive Transport (high to low concentration)

no energy

Simple Diffusion

substances easily cross cell membrane^

Facilitated Diffusion

substances cannot cross
membrane on their own

Hydrophilic Molecules

Channel Protein

uses channel for molecules
and specific solutes

Hydrophobic Molecules

Carrier Protein

shapeshifts to help
different molecules

Osmosis

water crosses the
the cell membrane

Hypotonic

Lysed

Turgor

Isotonic

Normal

Flaccid

Hypertonic

Shriveled

Plasmolyzed

contractile vacuole

taking water in

pumping water out

movement of substances
in and out of the cell

Phospholipid Bilayer

Amphipathic

Two Hydrophobic Tails

Saturated Fatty Acid

no double bonds
between carbons

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

double bonds
between carbons

Trans Fatty Acids

H atoms are opposite

Cis Fatty Acids

H atoms are on
same sides

Hydrophilic Head

Phosphate Group

Glycerol

Lipids

Cholesterol

Carbohydrates

Glycolipid

Protein

Glycoprotein

Peripheral Membrane
Proteins

Integral Membrane
Proteins

All cells have

Can be

Can be

Biological Molecules

Include

Carbohydrates

Consisting of 1 Sugars

Monosaccharide

Examples

Fructose

Glucose

composed of alpha and beta isomers

Consisting of 2 Sugars

Disaccharide

Examples

Sucrose

Lactose

formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides

Consisting of 2 or More Sugars

Polysaccharide

Examples

Glycogen

Can be Found Within

Animals

Used For

Storage of Energy

Formed of Alpha Glucose monomers connected through 1-4 glycosidic linkages

Starch

Can be Found Within

Plants

serve as fuel and building material

Proteins

Are Chains of

Amino Acids

Known As^

Polypeptides

Examples

Enzymes

Hemoglobin

Can Be

Primary

amino acid chain

peptide bonds

Tertiary

Subtopic

polar covalent, ionic, hydrophobic interactions, and R-group disulfide bonds

Quaternary

several protein chains or subunits into a closely packed arrangement

all prior bonds, van der waals

Lipids

3 Main Groups

Fat (Triglycerides)

Can Be

Unsaturated

Presence of double bonds can create cis/trans isomers of fatty acids

stay liquid at room temperature

cis isomer

H atoms on same side of molecule

trans isomer

H atoms on opposite sides of molecule

Saturated

only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, saturated with hydrogen

are solid at room temperature

Phospholipid

the structural components of the cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer)

hydrophillic head, 2 hydrophobic tails

“kinks” in their tails push adjacent phospholipid molecules away, which helps maintain fluidity in the membrane

Steroids

increase membrane fluidity and serve as signaling molecules

serve as structural components of cell membranes, as energy storehouses, and as important signaling molecules

Nucleic Acids

Are Chains of

Nucleotides

Include 3 Parts ^

Phosphate Group

Nitrogen Base

Adenine

Guanine

Thymine

Cytosine

Uracil

ATP

includes phosphodiester bonds

5 Carbon Sugar

Ribose

RNA

Deoxyribose

DNA

nucleic acids

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

carries genetic information

synthesize proteins

replicates itself

Purines

Adenine (pairs with Thymine in DNA, Uracil in RNA) and Guanine (pairs with Cytosine)

A-T form two hydrogen bonds C-G forms 3 hydrogen bonds

The amount of Adenine equals the amount of Thymine, the amount of Guanine equals the amount of Cytosine

Pyrimidines

Thymine (pairs with Adenine in DNA, Uracil (pairs with Adenine in RNA), and Cytosine (pairs with Guanine)

DNA Replication

semi-conservative model of replication

The two strands of the parental molecule separate, and each functions as a template for synthesis of a new, complementary strand

helicase

is an enzyme that catalyzes DNA strand separation

breaking hydrogen bonds between strands

creating a replication fork/bubble for replication to begin

primase

binds to each strand of DNA at the replication fork and synthesizes a short (3 to 10 base) strand of RNA

primer

provides a strand end for DNA polymerase to add bases to

DNA polymerase III

adds complementary nitrogenous base to daughter strand

lagging strand

numerous RNA primers, made by the primase enzyme, bind at various points along the lagging strand

chunks of DNA are then added to the lagging strand also in the 5’ to 3’ direction

Okazaki fragments

leading strand

binds to the leading strand and adds new complementary nucleotide bases (A, C, G and T) to the strand of DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction

DNA Polymerase I

removes the RNA primer and replaces with DNA nucleotides

DNA ligase

seals up the sequence of DNA into two continuous double strands

sliding clamp protein

converts the DNA polymerase III from being distributive (falling off) to processive (staying on)

SSB (single strand binding proteins)

stabilize the un-wound parental strands

topoisomerase

alters the supercoiling of double-stranded DNA

dna synthesis

RNA ribonucleic acid)

Example

DNA, RNA

carry genetic information which is read in cells to make the RNA and proteins by which living things function

Bonds

covalent

polar

unequal sharing of electrons

O-H, S-H, N-H, C-O

hydrophillic

equal sharing of electrons

C-H, C-C, H-H

hydrophobic

salts, ex. NaCl

ionic bonds

Envelope

Surround

Is attached to the

only in

Secondary

hydrogen bonding

relatively weak

relatively strong

sharing of H atom

partial positive charges that attract partial negative charges

among H2O molecules

water properties

cohesion

water molecules attracted to other substances

adhesion

water molecules attracted to each other

ex. water move up stem of a plant

high specific heat

amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1 degree Celsius

water has highest specific heat of an liquid

hydrogen bonds breaking and reforming

high heat of vaporization

amount of energy to convert 1g or a substance from a liquid to a gas

hydrogen bonds to be broken

organisms regulate body temperature by sweating

water expansion when frozen, denser as liquid than solid

ice has spaced-out lattice structure

ice to float

aquatic life can survive under frozen water

universal solvent

water is a polar molecule

Can be attached to

Provides

Provides

amino acid chains and polypeptide backbone held together by

alpha helices, beta pleated sheets

Floating topic

formed when 100 or more monosaccharides are bonded together through glycosidic linkages

Function:
Photosynthesis

Cellular Respiration

three distinct processes

Glycolysis

cytoplasm

has two phases

Energy Investment Phase

step 1- adding a phosphate from ATP to Glucose to form Glucose6p by using the enzyme Hexokinase

step 2- converting Glucose6p into Fructose6p

step 3- * Enzyme PFK is used to convert Fructose6P to Fructose1, 6 Biphosphate

step 4- 6 carbon sugar splits into two molecules of 3 carbon. Each of them forming DHAP and G3P

step 5- conversions between the DHAP

Energy Payoff Phase

step 6- 1 G3P is oxidized by the transfer of electrons to NAD+, and forming NADH. Using energy from the redox reaction, a phosphate group, is then attached to the oxidized substrate, making 3-Biphosphoglycerate.

step 7- the phosphate group is transferred to ADP in an exergonic reaction.G3P is then oxidized to the carboxyl group, creating 3-Phosphoglycerate

step 8- Phosphoglyceromutase is used to relocate the remaining phosphate group

step 9- Enolase causes a double bond to form in the substrate by extracting a water molecule, creating phosphoenolypyruvate (PEP)

breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate

Fermentation

Lactic Acid Fermentation

NADH transfers its electrons directly to pyruvate

glucose is converted to lactate and cellular energy

animal cell tissue

yeast, muscle cells, and Lactobaccilus ssps

occurs in production of cheese and yogurt

pyruvate decarboxylase and lactate dehydrogenase

Alcohol Fermentation

NADH donates its electrons to a derivative of pyruvate

carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate and released in as carbon dioxide

a two-carbon molecule called acetaldehyde

regenerating NAD+ and forming ethanol

pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase

plant tissue, yeast, microorganisms

occurs in production of bread, beer, wine, vinegar

Pyruvate Oxidation

pyruvate is oxidize, then the electrons are transferred to NAD+ to form NADH ^

Acetyl Coenzyme A is formed

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Electron Transport Chain

located in the inter mitochondrial membrane

Complexes I, III, IV

are H+ pumps

their job

pump H+ against the concentration gradient in the intermembrane space

the energy used coms from the energy released from the electrons being transferred down the ETC

Complex II

FADH2 transfers electrons

an electrochemical gradient that leads to the creation of ATP

Chemiosmosis

Creates ATP

H+ go back down the concentration gradient

ATP synthesis

a lot of ATP is formed 26-28 molecules

Citric Acid Cycle

step 1- Acetyl CoA adds its two carbon group to oxoloacetate which produces citrate

step 2- Citrate converts to Isocitrate, with the loss and gain of an H2O molecule

step 3- * Isocitrate is oxidized while NAD+ is reduced. a-Ketoplutarate is made

step 4- CO2 is released from a- ketoglutarate, which causes four-carbon molecules to be oxidized, then CoA is added, which makes it reactive, NADH+ & H+ is formed. CoA-SH is added, creating Succinyl CoA

step 5- A phosphate group is added to Succinyl CoA. GTP is released, which binds with ADP, that results in the formation of ATP. COA-SH is released, and Succinate is the end result.

step 6- Succinate is oxidized, FAD is reduced, FADH2 is formed

step 7- H2O is added to Furmarate, which results in Malate

step 8- Malate is oxidized, NAD+ is added, and it results in the formation of NADH+. The product is Oxaloacetate

dependent on each other as the products of each of these reactions initiate the other reaction

Signaling

Local Signaling

Synaptic Signaling

Nerve cell signaling

1) An action
potential arrives,
depolarizing
the presynaptic
membrane.

2) depolarization
opens voltage-gated
channels

Triggering an
influx of Ca2+

3) elevated Ca2+ concentration
causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with
the presynaptic membrane

neurotransmitter is released
into synaptic cleft

4) neurotransmitter binds to ligand-gated
ion channels

Paracrine Signaling

Long Distance Signaling/
Hormonal Signaling

Hormone travels through blood steam
to reach target cell

Signal Molecule/
ligand

Signal must be received
by a receptor

signal is
polar/hydrophilic

Membrane
Receptor

G Protein
coupled receptor

1) Ligand binds to
extracellular receptor

receptor changes shape
and activates G protein

Activated protein carries GTP molecule

2) activated G protein leaves the receptor, diffuses along the membrane, and then binds to an enzyme

enzyme changes shape
and becomes activated

3) Enzyme takes ATP
and makes cAMP(2nd
messenger)

4) cAMP activates
Protein Kinase A

Triggers cellular
response

Ion Chanel

signal molecule attaches to the
Ligand-gated ion receptor

channel opens

specific ions are allowed
through the channel into the
cytoplasm

Triggers Cellular
response

When ligand leaves
receptor, channel closes

Tyrosine Kinase

Receptor tyrosine
kinase proteins
(inactive monomers)
(2 of them)

each receptor
has 3 tyrosines

1) 2 Signaling molecules
bind to the 2 binding sites

the monomers combine
to create a dimer

2) 6 ATP is used to
add a Pi to each tyrosine

activating the tyrosine
kinase dimer

2) Inactive relay proteins
attach to the tyrosine dimer

relay proteins become
activated

Triggers Cellular
response

Signal is non-polar
hydrophobic

Intermembrane
Receptor

1) steroid hormone
passes through the
plasma membrane.

2) hormone binds
with receptor protein
and activates it

3) hormone-receptor complex
enters the nucleus and binds
to specific genes.

bound protein acts
as a transcription factor

4) stimulating the
transcription of
the gene into mRNA

5) mRNA is
translated into a
specific protein.

takes place in the

Cell Communication

Physical Contact

Junctions

Gap

Open channel between
cells

Allows free flow of
ions and small molecules

Tight

prevent fluid from moving
across cells.

Plasmodesmata

Chanel between cells

only found in plant cells

Desmosomes

Provides a connection
between intermediate
filaments

Somewhere between gap and tight!

cell releases
signal molecule

Photolysis

Two Electrons

Electron Transport Chain

Photosystem I P700

ETC

2 NADH

Primary Electron Acceptor

Metabolism

Catabolism

breaking down of molecules

releases energy

Energy of Life

Chemical Energy

ATP

Thermodynamics

Conservation of Energy

energy cannot be created/destroyed

entropy always seeks to increase over time

Anabolism

building up of molecules

requires energy

Floating topic

comprised of nucleotides made of nitrogenous bases

Transcription

mRNA

DNA

pre-mRNA

eukaryotes

a 5' cap made of modified guanine

stability

translation

exons

expressed

introns

spliced out

snRNP's

ribosomes

promoter

stop codon

DNA- dependent RNA polymerase

in 3' to 5' direction

DNA polymerase

in 5' to 3' direction

terms

downstream

toward 3' end of DNA

toward 5' end of RNA

upstream

toward 3' end of RNA

toward 5' end of DNA

Translation

mRNA

small ribosomal
subunit

tRNA carries
anti codon

Start Codon
(AUG)

Large Ribosomal
subunit joins complex

P site

A site

anti codon pairs with
corresponding codon

E site
(exit site)

tRNA in A site moves to

Codons

Sequence of 3 Nucleotides

Stop Codon

Ends translation

UAA, UAG, UGA

Start Codon

Begins Translation

AUG

Cytosol

Floating topic

Sequences

Sequence

next tRNA
enters

here

tRNA in P site
moves to

Contains

binds to

binds to

Process that creates

initiation complex
complete

Initiation Complex

part of

first tRNA
starts in

Elongation Begins

begins with

Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase

attaches corresponding
amino acid to

As tRNA travels from
A site to P site

Peptidyl transferase

Peptide bonds

Amino acids

Polypeptide chain formed

End codon is reached

Release factor

Complex breaks
apart

Both ribosomal units

Polypeptide chain

tRNA
(w/o amino acid)

forms

between

are moved from one tRNA
to next tRNA

translation ends

enters A site

releases

Nucleus

Takes place in

Takes place in

plays a part in

Cannot occur without

glucose reacting with other molecules to form different types of sugars

Proteins (enzymes) are used to
break down cell waste in lysosomes