stops transcription, makes...
new strand is formed from 5' to 3'
RNA Polymerase binds at the promoter
enzyme
takes place in the...
emzyme
takes place in the...
steps of transcription
large subunit has three sites: E, P & A
what's needed in translation...
takes place in the...
steps
replaces primers with DNA
synthesizes new DNA; extends primers
lays primers
relieves tension
keeps strand separate
two molecules with both old and new DNA
make molecules with old and new DNA; one old strand and one new strand
preserve the old molecule and make an entirely new one
The looped domains coil more
A basic form/unit of a nucleosome
DNA wraps around the histones twice "beads on a string" (10nm)
Binds weakly to control element, resulting in low transcription
Binds weakly
leads to
Sometimes the enhancers are close, but when they'e far from the promoter, the interactions with activators allow them to "fold " the DNA to get close to the transcription factors bound in the promoter region
Increase Transcription located up or downstream of a gene
leads to
β-galactosidase
Creates an enzyme that will transfer acetyl groups to β-galactosides
Lactose isn't present
Lactose is present Glucose is not present
Lactose is present Glucose is present
Not part of the Lac Operon It is a regulatory gene.
part of the operon
part of the operon
part of the operon
Required for metabolism in bacteria
Operons are only present in Prokaryotes
CO2 and NADPH is released in the process
H+ protons go down their concentration gradient through ATP Synthase
electron passes and powers the proton pumps
electron
electron passes and powers the proton pumps
electron passes and powers the proton pumps
+ NADH
+ FADH
1 NADH made
1 FADH2 made
1 ATP made
CO2 released and NADH made
CO2 released and NADH made
Pyruvate kinase used and 2 ATP made
Enolase used and 2H20 made
Phospho-glyceromutase used
Phospho-glycerokinase used and 2 ATP made
Triosephosphate-dehydrogenase used and 2NADH made
1 ATP used and Phospho-fructokinase
Phosphogluco-isomerase
1 ATP used and hexokinase
2 Electron carriers produced
Net ATP produced
+ 2 ATP
third step in Cellular Respiration
Second step in Cellular Respiration
First step in Cellular Respiration
Electron carriers used in oxidative phosphorylation
General Transcription like Repressors lead to basal expression
products from glycolisis used in the citric acid cycle
Electron Carriers from the Citric Acid Cycle power the Electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation
joins Okazaki Fragments
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)
Electron carriers used in oxidative phosphorylation
Pyruvate enters the mitochondria
Electron carriers used in oxidative phosphorylation
CAP, RNA Polymerase
When they interact, there's low transcription Binds to enhancer sequence
DNA to mRNA
electron passes and powers the proton pumps
Electron carriers used in oxidative phosphorylation
Repressor
More Transcription
mRNA to proteins
Tryptophan is a negative Regulator
Specific transcription factors like CAP lead to high levels of expression
Most compact form: heterochromatin

Cellular Respiration

Glycolisis

Investment Phase

Glucose is converted to glucose 6-phosphate

glucose 6-phosphate converted to Fructose 6-phosphate

Fructose 6-phosphate converted to Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

Pay-off Phase

G3P converted to 1,3-bisphospho-glycerate

1,3-bisphospho-glycerate converted to 3-Phospho-glycerate

3-Phospho-glycerate converted to 2-phospho-glycerate

2-phospho-glycerate converted to phosphoenol-pyruvate

phosphoenol-pyruvate converted to Pyruvate

2NAD+ converted to 2NADH in the process of making 1,3-bisphospho-glycerate

2 ATP

2 NADPH

Citric Acid cycle

Acetyl CoA --> citrate --> Isocitrate

a-ketoglutarate

Succinyl CoA

Succinate

Fumarate

Malate

Oxaloacetate

6 NADH made for two rounds of the cycle

2 FADH made for two rounds of the cycle

2 ATP made for two rounds of the cycle

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Electron Transport Chain

Protein complex 2

FAD by product

Protein complex 1

compex Q

Protein complex 3

Cyt-c complex

Protein complex 4

H2O by product

NAD+ by product

The process by which the electrons from the electron carries powers the proton pumps, an H+ gradient is formed with a higher concentration of H+ in the inner membrane (outside). This will provide the potential energy needed in chemiosmosis.

Chemiosmosis

ATP Synthase

The power generated from the flow of protons enables ATP Synthase to add an inorganic phosphate to ADP to form ATP

about 26 or 28 ATP produced

Pyruvate Oxidation

pyruvate breaks down and CO2 is released, NADP gets a H+ to make NADPH as the rest of the molecule combines with coenzyme A

Acetyl CoA

2 NADH produced

311C Concept Map

Gene Regulation

Prokaryotes

Operons

Lac Operon

On

-Repressor binded to allolactose
-cAMP levels are high
-CAP is active and RNA Polymerase
binds to promoter

-Repressor binded to allolactose
-cAMP levels are low
-CAP is not active and RNA Polymerase
cannot bind well to promoter

Off

-Repressor binded to operator
-Repressor "on"
-RNA polymerase can't bind to promoter

Lac A

transacetylase

Lac Y

Permease

Lac Z

Breaks down Lactose

Lac I

Trp Operon

On

-Tryptophan is not present
-Repressor is inactive

Off

-Tryptophan is Present
-Repressor is active

Eukaryotes

Transcription Factors

Specific Transcription Factors

High Levels of Expression

Eukaryotic

Distal Control Elements

Enhancers

Activators

Binding Sites

General Transcription Factors

Low(Basal) levels of Expression

Repressor

RNA Pol. II can't bind, resulting in
low expression

Eukaryotic

Proximal Control Elements
(close to promoter)

RNA Polymerase II

Transcription Factors

DNA Packaging

DNA wraps around Histones

H1, H21, H2B, H3, H4

H2A, H2B, H3, H4 form histone cores

Nucleosomes

Chromatin

30 nm fiber wraps and connects nucleosomes

H1 is needed for fiber

GENE EXPRESSION

REPLICATION

models of DNA replication

conservative

semiconservative

enzyme: helicase

forms replication bubble

enzyme: SSB

enzyme: topoisomerase

enzyme: RNA primase

enzyme: DNA Pol III

enzyme: DNA Pol I

Ligase

ORI

leading and lagging strand

replication forks

Okazaki fragments

dispersive

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

replicates and amplifies DNA

denaturation

anneal

elongation

TRANSLATION

cytoplasm

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

70s in Prokaryotes

80s in Eukaryotes

large and small subunit

small subunit binds to 5' cap w/ Met

Met scans to find AUG

large subunit binds to AUG

Met starts in the P site

anticodon bonds to the tRNA

amino acyl tRNA synthetase

actual process of translation, adds
proteins onto the tRNA to form a
protein chain until a stop codon is present

mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, amino acids,
amino acyl tRNA synthetase, peptidyl
transferase, initiation factors,
elongation factors, release factors

TRANSCRIPTION

Prokaryotes

cytoplasm

RNA Pol

coupled transcription and translation

Eukaryotes

nucleus

RNA Pol II

transcription factors

5' cap and poly-A tail

RNA Processing

introns are removed from the gene through spliceosomes

make final mRNA

Initiation

Elongation

Termination

pre mRNA

MUTATIONS

missense

changing a nucleotide which changes the protein

silent

changes a nucleotide but the protein remains the same

nonsense

adds a premature stop codon

frameshift

adding or deleting nucleotides in multiples other than three

nucleotide excision repair

fixes bulge