Uses
Why are they important?
Function
Monomer
Function
Held together by
Monomerrs
Function
Held together by
Monomers
Examples
Functions
Held together by
Monomers
Connection: Genes encode receptors and signaling proteins/ligands
Channels are made of proteins which allow specific ions to cross without going through bilayer which they are unable to cross due to positive/negative charge
CONNECTION: Carbohydrates are broken down during cellular respiration in the process of forming ATP
CONNECTION: Phosphodiester bonds form DNA/RNA backbones. Hydrogen bonds stabilize base pairing in DNA.
Cellular structural differences between plants and animal cells, chloroplasts
CONNECTION: Mutations can impact the structure and function of these embedded proteins
Connection: Water's polar property leads to specific formation of the phospholipid bilayer
CONNECTION: NUCLEIC ACIDS serve as the basis of DNA, multiple proteins are used throughout DNA Replication, Lipids and carbs serve regulatory functions throughout
CONNECTION: Membrane proteins are often responsible for activation of transcription factors. Also play a role in hormonal signaling which can regulate cells.
CONNECTION: Differences in types of cells take form in the way these cells are genetifcally regulated
Proteins that are translated are secreted across membrane
CONNECTION: Water is a product of respiration as the final electron acceptor.
CONNECTION: Membranes, in the form of the phospholipid bilayer are composed of lipids stacked with hyrophobic tails interior and hydrophilic heads exterior.
Connection: Proteins are produced via the process of translation
CONNECTION: Mutations can affect cell signaling and disrupt certain pathways

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Biological Molecules

Carbohydrates

Monomers: Monosaccharides

Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

Bonds: Glycosidic Bonds

Functions: Provide energy, structural (cellulose in plants)

Lipids

Monomers: Fatty acids and glycerol

Bonds: Ester Bonds

Functions: Energy Storage (Triglycerides)

Proteins

Monomers: Amino Acids

Peptide Bonds

Structural Support, enzymatic activity

Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides

Phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar, Nitrogenous base

Held together by Phosphodiester bonds

Store and transmit genetic information

Water Properties

Physical Properties

High boiling and melting point

High Specific Heat and Heat capacity

Chemical Properties

Polar Molecule

Hydrogen bonding

Biological Roles

Universal Solvent

Higher density as liquid than solid

Allows Ice to float on liquid water

Allows for aquatic environments to be insulated

2 Domains of Life (Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Structures)

Prokaryotes

Cell wall

Chloroplast

Plasmodesmata

Central Vacuole

Eukaryotes

Flagellum

Lysosome

ECM

Tight Junctions

Gap

Intermediate

Golgi apparatus

Smooth ER

Rough ER

Plasma Membrane

Nuclear Envelope

Nucleus

Ribosomes

Mitochondria

Microfilaments

Microtubes

Peroxisome

Chemical Bonds/Interactions

Intermolecular

Van der Waals/Hydrophobic Interactions

Hydrophobic tails of molecules clump on the "inside" while the hydrophilic heads are "outside" trying to interact with the liquids

Lipids

Ion-Dipole Interaction

When an ionic compound interacts with a polar molecule. Ions are attracted to oppositely charged end of a polar molecule

Salt dissolving in water

Dipole-Dipole Interaction

Positive end of one polar molecule attracted to the negative end of another polar molecule

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen can form these bonds with electronegative atoms like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine

Special type of Dipole-dipole interaction involving H atoms

Intramolecular

Covalent Bonds

Polar

When there is an electronegativity difference greater than 0.5 between the atoms of a molecules

Water (H20)

Hydroxyl group (OH)

Sulfhydryl group (SH)

Non-polar

When there is an electronegativity difference less than 0.5 between the atoms of a molecules

Oxygen (O2)

Methyl group (CH3)

Some molecules that have a difference greater than 0.5 can be non-polar due to linearity

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Ionic Bonds

When one atom donates one or more of its electrons to another and gain a positive charge due to the loss of an electron. The receiving atom gains a negative charge.

Sulfate group (SO4^2-)

Carboxylate group (COO-)

Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Hydroxide group (OH-)

CONCEPT MAP 2

Membranes

Components of Membranes

Phospholipid Bilayer

Hydrophobic Tail

Hydrophilic Head

Membrane Proteins

Integral Proteins

Transmembrane, meaning they span the length of the membrane, involved in transport, signaling

Peripheral Proteins

Loosely attached to surface of membrane, assist with signaling and structure

Cholesterol

Carbs

Attached to lipids or proteins (glycolipids/glycoproteins)

Function

Selectively Permeable

Regulates what enters/exits cells

Cell Recognition

Ligands attaching to membrane receptors

Cell Signaling

local signaling

paracine

synaptic

long distance

hormone

Intracellular

membrane receptors

G-protein linked

Ion Channel Receptor

Tyrosine Kinase

stretch

ligand

voltage

3 Stages

Reception

Transduction

response

G Protein Receptor

GDP

GTP

phosphatase

cAMP

AMP

Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis

Glucose (C₆) is converted to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) by hexokinase

Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is converted to fructose-6-phosphate (F6P)

Fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP) by phosphofructokinase

Products: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate, Water

Oxidative Phospholyration

ATP, Water, NAD⁺ and FAD (recycled electron carriers that go back to glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle).

ETC

Protein complexes I, II, III, and IV.

Mobile electron carriers: Ubiquinone (CoQ) and cytochrome c

NADH donates electrons to Complex I, FADH₂ donates electrons to Complex II.

Protons (H⁺) are actively pumped into the intermembrane space by Complex I, Complex III, and Complex IV creating gradient

The protons flow back into the mitochondrial matrix

The flow of protons through ATP synthase drives the conversion of ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) to ATP

Products: 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, 1 GTP (or ATP), 2 CO₂

Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Cycle

Pyruvate Oxidation

1 Acetyl-CoA, 1 NADH, 1 CO₂

Pyruvate transported to mitochondria

Pyruvate (3-carbon) is decarboxylated, meaning it loses a carbon atom as CO₂

Coenzyme A (CoA) binds to the remaining 2-carbon fragment, forming acetyl-CoA.

NAD⁺ accepts electrons and a proton (H⁺), becoming NADH

Photosynthesis

Chloroplasts

Light Dependent Reactions

Light absorption by PSII

Transport of H+ through ETC

ATP and NADPH Production

3 ATP:1 molecule NADPH

Photolysis

Production of O2 as a byproduct

Calvin Cycle

Carbon fixation

G3P formation

A regeneration phase

G3P is used to regenerate RuBisCO

Is used for carbon fixation

Conversion of CO2 into Glucose

PSII and PSI

PSII is First to ACT

Photolysis

Generate high energy E for ETC

PSI is second to ACT

Production of NADPH

Used in Calvin Cycle

Membrane Proteins (Action Potential)

Integral membrane proteins

Na+, K+, Ca, H+ will travel through these channels

Na+/K+ pump

Resting Potential

Depolarization

"Peak Phase"

Repolarization

Hyperpolarization

Refractory Period

Return to resting potential

Hyrdophobic regions allow them to interact with internal layer

CONCEPT MAP III

Mutations

Random Changes in DNA structure

Point Mutations

Substitution

Silent Mutation

No change in amino acid coded for

Redundancy of genetic code, multiple codons can code for the same amino acid

No effect

Missense Mutation

Change in an amino acid in the protein

Potential changes in protein structure and function

Nonsense mutation

Introduces an early stop codon

Truncation/faulty protein

Frameshift

One or more base pairs swapped that alters the reading of the DNA sequence

Lead to genetic variation

Transcription

Prokaryotes

RNAP

Promoter

Unwinds DNA

Creates new RNA transcript

reads 3' to 5'

Termination

Terminates at given termination site

Reads until AAUAAA sequence and adds A polytail at the 3' end

Creates new pre-RNA transcript

RNA splicing

Splicesome removes introns

Eukaryotes

RNA polymerase II

Transcription factors

Translation

Initiation

mRNA, tRNA, Ribosome

Eukaryotes

Met is starting amino acid

Prokaryotes

fMet is starting amino acid

Termination

Stop codon enters A site

Release factor comes to A site instead of tRNA

Elogation

mRNA enters

read from 5' to 3'

A site

forms peptide bonds between amino acids attached to tRNA

P site

E site

Empty tRNA from P site leaves

added from N to C

EUKARYOTIC VS PROKARYOTIC GENE REGULATION

Regulation

Prokaryotes

Simple, single celled

Gene Regulation

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Key mechanism: Operons

Inducible Operons

EXAMPLE: LAC Operon, ON when lactose is present

Repressible Operons

TRP Operon: Off when tryptophan is abundant

Eukaryotes

Complex, multicellular

Gene Regulation

Occurs at MULTIPLE levels

Primarily on transcriptional level

Control of Gene Regulation also occurs on Epigenetic, post-transcriptional, translational and post-translational level.

DNA REPLICATION

DNA REPLICATION

Okazaki fragments

Short segments of DNA synthesized on lagging strand

DNA Polymerase III

DNA replication reads 3' to 5', makes DNA 5'to3'

Adds nucleotides to the 3' end of a growing DNA strand.

Topoisomerase

keeps it from breaking

Primase

Synthesizes short RNA primers

DNA Polymerase I

Ligase

Glues/connects everything together

helicase

unzips DNA

SSB

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Floating topic