Organisms
Eukaryotes
Animals
Nucleus
Nuclear Envelope
Separates Nucleus from cytoplasm and holds nucleus. It is the "plasma membrane" of the nucleus.
Nucleolus
Region of nucleus where ribosome synthesis occurs
Ribosomes
Performs biological protein synthesis. Links amino acids together to form polypeptide chains.
Lysosomes
Break down materials within the cell. Digestive system of the cell. Helps with recycling materials
Peroxisomes
Have oxidated reactions (peroxides) and have very similar storage and digestive like functions. They basically help prevent oxygen in the cell.
Centrosomes
Aids in cell division
Genetic Material
RNA/ Ribose Nucleic Acid
Single strand of DNA; takes a role in the expression of genes
Self- Replicatiing RNA helped jumpstart evolution
DNA/ Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
Double stranded with complementary base pairing. C-G; T-A; A-U; These are bonded through hydrogen bonds. DNA is also in the shape of a double helix.
Dna provides directions for its own replication. It also directs synthesis RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis, a process gene expression
Mutations
Silent
There's a change in the nucleotide, but there is no change in the codon
Missence
There's a change in the amino acid Codon
Frameshift
1-2 Nucleotides are removed/added
Nonsense
Prematurely stops/ early stop codon
Plasma Membrane
Prokaryotes
Celia and Flagella
A variety of functions across different types of cell, but are usually used for movement and mating
Archaea
Extremophiles
ability to live in extreme environments
Halophiles
Highly saline environments
Thermophiles
Thrive in very Hot environments
Boundary of cell, separates everything within the cell and the environment
Lipids
Steroids
4 Fused rings of carbon and the precursor of sex hormones
Phospholipids
Amphiphatic Bilayer
Hydrophilic Head and Hydrophobic tail creates a membrane
Cholesterol
HDL/ HighDensity Lipoprotein
Good Cholesterol
LDL/ Low Density Lipoprotein
Bad Cholesterol
Saturated fats and trans fats can increase LDL
Help with the fluidity of the membrane
Fat molecule
Unsaturated
Double Bonds
Cis Fats
The Hydrogen bonds are on the same vertical side
Trans Fats
Liquid at room temperature
Saturated
No double Bonds; Every possible location is bonded with an Hydrogen
Hydrogenation
Chemical process/ reaction that bonds fats with saturated fats
Solid at room temperature
Triglycerol/Tryglyceride/Glycerol
Ester Linkage
3 Fatty Acids
Energy Storage
Cell wall
The cell wall provides protection and a rigid outside like shell. It allows the plant to grow upright.
Bacteria
Peptidoglycan
Polysaccharide made up of amino acids that form the cell wall of many bacteria
Mitochondria
Proteins
ER
Plants
Chloroplasts
Responsible for the photosynthesis
Central Vacuole
Storage place for plant cells. Fills with water and food. When filled, creates turgor pressure within the cell, giving it a turgid structure.
Cytoskeleton
Rough
Smooth
Produces lipids and phospholipids which make up the cell membrane
The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell which means that it produces ATP(Energy). Although, the mitochondria isn't the cite where energy is created, but rather it is harnessed.
Protein Folding/Protein Synthesis
Process which a polypeptide chain folds to become a active proteins in its 3D structure.
Primary
Amino acids peptide bonded with each other to create a polypeptide chain
Secondary
Hydrogen bonding occurs between carboxyl and amino groups within the polypeptide
Alpha Helices and Beta pleated sheets
Tertiary
Polypeptide begins to fold as R groups interact with each other
Hydrophobic interactions between nonpolar R groups
Disulfide bridge (Only covalent bond between R groups)
Ionic bonding between charged R groups
Quaternary
Two or more tertiary structures come together through interactions between the R groups
Polymers
Nucleic Acids
Monomers
Nucleotides
Phosphate Group
connects nucleotides
Phosophodiesters Bonds/Linkage
the backbone of the strands of nucleic acid. They form between the 5' and 3' ends of two different nucleotides forming an ester linkage.
Condesation/ Dehydration reactions occur
Takes away a water (H20) molecules and bonds/combines what is left
Nitrogenous Base
Pyrimidines
Cytosine (C)
Uracil (U)
Thymine (T)
Purines
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Sugar
Bilayer with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads
Fluidity
Aids in fluidity due to unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats have a bent/kink tail due to cis double bonds. The kinks causes other phospholipids to be more spread out allowing proteins and other molecules to pass through easier.
Cytoplasm
Biomolecules
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Energy production, energy storage
Storage
Fructose
Glucose
Disaccharide synthesis
Polysaccharide
Structure (stability)
Glycosidic linkage
Alpha glucose
Starch
Amylopectin
Amylose
Glycogen
Dextran
Cellulose
Chitin
Beta glucose
Building blocks of carbohydrates
falls above the carbon ring
falls below the carbon ring
Energy and Cell Communication
Cell Respiration
Aerobic
Aerobic process occur in the presence of oxygen
Pyruvate Oxidation
Takes 2 molecules of pyruvate from glycolysis and forms 2 Acetyl CoA
2 molecules of CO2 and NADP are formed and released
Citric acid cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Occurs in mitochondira
Acetyl CoA changes oxaloacetate into citrate
Water is released, citrate is changed into isocitrate
Isocitrate is oxidized, NADH is reduced to form alpha ketoglutarate. CO2 is released
More reactions occur, end result is Malate being oxidized to form oxaloacetate and the cycle continues
Net result: 3 NADH, 1 ATP, 1 FADH2
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Electron transport chain
Occurs in inner membrane space ad miochondrial matrix
NADH and FADH2 give up their electrons to a less electronegative carrier
Electrons move down chain to increasingly electronegative carriers, releasing energy through each transition
Energy released is used to pump protons against their concentration gradient into inner membrane space
Chemiosis
Protons are able to flow down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase, which provides the energy needed to add a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP
Electrons end up meeting oxygen at the end of the chain to form water
Oxidative phosphorylation
Net result: 26 or 28 ATP
Occurs in mitochondira
No ATP produced
Anaerobic
Anaerobic processes occur without the presence of oxygen
breaks down carbohydrate to use energy when oxygen levels are low
Glycolysis
Occurs in cytoplasm of cell, occurs in two phases
Step 1: Hexokinase takes phosphate group from ATP and gives it to Glucose, to form Glucose 6-phosphate
Step 3: Phosphofructokinase gives Fructose 6-phosphate a phosphate from ATP. So far 2 ATP have been used.
Through several reaction, 2 NAD+ is turned into 2 NADH and 4 ADPs are turned into 4 ATP. 2 molecules of water are also released.
Net: 2 NADH, 2 ATP
End result of glycolysis: 2 Pyruvates
NADH formed in all reactions are used in electron transport chain
Makes ATP through substrate level phosphorylation
Cell Signaling
Cell Signaling Pathway
Step 1: Small Non-Polar molecules (Such as steroids) pass through the cell membrane
Simple Diffusion
Step 2: The signal molecule reaches the receptor which binds/ conforms to the signal molecule
Step 3: The signal molecule and the receptor has confirmation to pass through the nuclear pores on the nuclear membranes
Step 4: Activates gene expression
G- Protein Coupled Receptor
G- Protein is coupled with GDP and rests as in an inactive state.
Ligand reaches G- Protein Receptor
GTP ("a form of ATP") binds to the G-protein receptor while the Receptor changes shape causeing the G-protein to simultaneously release GDP.
The G-protein slides across the membrane towards the enzyme Adenyl Cyclase
Once it reaches and binds to the enzyme, it uses a phosphate from GTP (ATP) to produce cAMP.
cAMP- Cyclic AMP
Produces AMP
2nd Signal molecule/ messenger
1st protein Kinase activated
2nd Protein Kinase activates
Protein Kinase 3
protein Kinase 4
Protein Kinase 5
etc
Nucleus
Dna Transcription, Protein synthase, Cell Growth, etc is signaled to start producing
Mutation
The enzyme Phosphodiesterase doesn't stop cell growth or cAMP is still active
Cancer- continuous overgrowth of cells
cascade
Removes phosphates using the enzyme Phosphosdiesterase
GTP reverts back to GDP using Phosphatase to break off a phosphate
Travels back across the membrane with GDP to bind to the G-Protein receptor
Enzymes
Activators and inhibitors
Competitive
Fights/ Blocks for active site
Product is formed from adding more substrate
Allosteric
Binds to the NON- active site
Enzyme is changed shape to accomodate the allosteric inhibitor/activator
No prod can be formed from adding more substrate
Substrates
Cooperativity
Substrate binds to 1 of the present active sites
Binding of 1 causes change in all of the rest/ cause the rest to become active
Gene Expression
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Maximum ATP produced per molecule of glucose: 30 or 32
Photosynthesis
Leaves^
Mesophyll tissue
Stomata
Light reactions
Chloroplasts
Openings on leaf surface that allows CO2 to enter and O2 leaves
Calvin cycle
Outside thylakoid in stroma
Subtopic
Reduction
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor
Thylakoids of chloroplast
Convert solar energy to chemical
Photosystem II
Photosystem I^
Energy is passed between molecules after light photon is absorbed like in PSII until reaching Chlorophyll a molecules and grabbed by electron acceptor
Electrons go through electron transport chain again but to Ferredoxin
Noncyclic Flow of electrons
Cyclic flow
When excess NADPH is present, PSI is used to produce ATP instead, quickly
Generates ATP
Photophosphorylation
Added phosphate group to ADP
Reaction-center complex with light harvesting complexes
Absorbs light at 680 nm
absorbs light at 700 nm
Ligand is the 1st messenger
Transfer of electrons down the Electron transport chain
Is the first photosystem used for noncyclic flow
When pigment molecules absorb light, electrons get excited and unstable
When electrons fall back down, they release absorbed energy
Protons cause an afterglow^
Fluorescence
Energy is then aborbed by the next molecule
Cycle continues until reached by main reaction center pair of chlorophyll a
Electrons get excited and get grabbed by electron acceptor molecule
Electrons are also fed here from water after O2 is released
GO DOWN ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Form NADPH from NADP+
eptor
Chromosomes
Nucleosomes
DNA +histone core
DNA STRUCTURE
Hydrogen Bonds
Semi Conservative
TRANSLATION
Initiation
Prokaryotes start with a formal MET and Eukaryotes do NOT
Elongation
Large Ribosome
E-Exit
5' ---AUG---3'
Small Ribosome
Releases Codons
P- Peptidyl Transferase
Creates Peptide Bonds
Creates Polypeptides
Proteins
Synthesized by Free Ribosomes
Free ribosomes are complete in synthesis
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Perioxisomes
Plastids/ Chloroplast
Free Ribosome are incomplete in synthesizes
Endomembrane System
SRP which Binds to SRP Receptor on free ribosomes produces proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Can add a glycoprotein/ Known for chemical modifications
Plasma Membrane
Secreted using Secretory Pathway
Exocitized
Outside of the cell
Lysosomes
To enter a ER Signal Molecule is required
Travels Through Vesicles
Made in a start N-C end
A- Amino Acyl Transferase
Adds Codons
Continuous Codon Cycle being added
Termination
Holds genetic material
Holds Genetic material
Double Helix
Each strand acts as a new template for synthesis of new strand
Double stranded
Strands are antiparallel
Complimentary Base pairings
Unravel to expose sequences for protein/enzyme binding
histone core with attached H1 linker
H2A,H2BH3,H4 October
Chromatid
TRANSCRIPTION
Prokaryotes
Trancription and translation both occur in cytoplasm
Both processes can occur simultaneously
RNA Polymerase (II in Eukaryotes) binds to DNA template with help from promoter sequence
RNA Polymerase (II) adds complementary nucleotides to RNA, 5' to 3'
Ribonuclease cleaves off RNA, 5' cap is added, and poly A tail is added to RNA
Spliceosomes remove introns from RNA, bind together exons to form mature RNA strand
Mature RNA
Eukarytotes
Transcription occurs in nucleus