PAT review

trees and forests

type of trees

Coniferous

known as “evergreens” or
“softwoods ”

facts

Shed and grow their leaves
continually.

Have needle shaped leaves

Stay green all year round

Are good at withstanding
temperature extremes

Seeds are well protected by a
sharp-toothed cone

Have existed for about 300 million
years

From the Latin word conifer –
“cone-bearing”

Deciduous

known as “broadleaved trees” or
“hardwoods trees”

facts

Shed leaves in fall, grow leaves in
spring

Are broad-leafed

Do not withstand temperature
extremes

Seeds are in vessels – fruit,
capsules, seeds, etc.

Have existed for 60 – 100 million
years

From the Latin word decider – “fall
down or off”

what is a tree

A perennial - this means a plant
with a continuous growth cycle

A plant with a long woody stem
known as a trunk

A plant with supporting woody
branches and leaves

Tree Cookies

Dendrochronology

Dendrochronology comes from the
roots dendro- meaning “tree” and
chronology meaning “the study of
time.”

Dendrochronology is the scientific
study of growth patterns and the
aging of trees, as shown in their
rings.

A dendrodisc (tree cookie) is a
cross sectional slice of a tree.

Tree rings are like the growth chart
of a tree. Easily visible rings can
provide information about the
weather, soil, and light conditions
over time.

tree rings

Every year a tree is alive is adds
new growth to its trunk that when
analyzed can help you to
understand more information
about the tree

Early Wood: Light colored wood is
called early wood as it grows in
summer and spring

Late wood: dark colored and is the
growth that happens over fall and
winter

Together these two types of wood
represent one year of growth

What are the different parts of a
Tree

Item 1
Cambium

The layer or zone of cells, just one cell thick, inside the inner bark.
The cambium produces both the xylem and phloem cells. This is
where diameter growth occurs, and where rings and inner bark
are formed.

Item 2
Phloem

Also called the inner bark. This
layer carries sugar made in the
leaves or needles down to the
branches trunks and roots, where it
is converted into the food the tree
needs for growth.

Item 3
Xylem

Also called the sapwood. This layer
carries the sap (water plus nitrogen
and mineral nutrients) back up from
the roots to the leaves. Sapwood
gives a tree its strength.

Item 4
Growth Ring

The lighter portion is called the
"early wood" (beacuse it grows in
the spring), and the darker portion
the "late wood" (which grows in
the summer). Together, they
represent one year of growth.

Item 5
Heartwood

Heartwood develops as a tree gets
older. It is old sapwood that no
longer carries sap, and gives the
trunk support and stiffness. In many
kinds of trees, heartwood is a
darker color than sapwood, since
its water-carrying tubes get
clogged up. The tree cookie at
right, like many of its fellow young
pines, has not developed
heartwood yet.

Item 6
Outer Bark

This layer protects a tree from
insects and disease, excessive heat
and cold, and other injuries.

Growing conditions

Optimal Growing Conditions

Tree is able to grow effectively
without any interruptions in its
cycle due to environmental
conditions

You know the tree has had optimal
growing conditions if all tree rings
are the same size

Drought

Tree rings can be narrower in
sections because the tree has not
had access to enough water which
slows its growth

You know a tree has gone through
a drought when some rings are
narrower than others

Competition, Pushing, and Slope

Sometimes you may notice a ring
with wider growth on one side and
narrower growth on the other.

Competition from other nearby
trees

Trees pushing up against a building

Trees growing on an uneven slope
(hillside or uneven ground)

Fire scars

Trees sometimes lose part of their
trunk due to a forest fire.

This can lead to a fire scar and
irregular growth of the tree around
the scar.

Infestation

When trees are infested by insects
or disease, it can leave holes or
scars within the tree.

Tree and Leaf
Classification

Classifying Tree Species

Type (deciduous vs coniferous)

Silhouette

Branch location

Branching Patterns

Bark

Leaves

Leaf Classification

leaf apex - the outer end of a leaf;
the end that is opposite the
petiole.

midrib - the central rib of a leaf - it
is usually continuous with the
petiole.

petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the
leaf to the plant.

vein - Vascular structure on a leaf.
Provides support for the leaf and
transport of both water and food.

Properties of Air

Parachutes

When you first release the
parachute, the force of gravity pulls
it downward, and the parachute
speeds toward the ground. The
faster the parachute falls, though,
the more drag it creates. The drag
force resists the downward
movement of gravity, pushing the
parachute back up.

Forces of Flight

lift

Lift pushes upward, allowing a
plane to fly

Lift holds an airplane up in the sky

Lift occurs as a result of the shape
of an airplane’s wing *Bernoulli’s
Principle
*

Bernoulli’s Principle

Daniel Bernoulli was a Swiss
mathematician and physicist

He came from a family of
mathematicians

He helped create Bernoulli’s
Principle, which is very important in
Aerodynamics

Bernoulli’s Principle: as air moves
around an object, it creates
different pressures on that object

Faster air = low pressure
Slower air = high pressure

WHAT ADAPTATIONS DO
INSECTS have to help them FLY

Most insects have two pairs of
wings

Wings are very light structures

Wings are shaped like an airfoil,
just like birds and airplanes

Wings don’t just flap up and down,
they rotate

Strong muscles in the midsection
or thorax

Insects don’t have bones - their
bodies are light

5 Propertys

Property 1: Air Takes Up Space

Air is a mixture of gasses that take
up space in the world around you.
Although you may not see it or
think because it has always been
there, air takes up the space
around us.

Property 2: Air Has Mass

Air is really quite heavy and has
mass. You don’t notice it because
your body is adapted withstand the
air pressure that you experience
every day.

Every square inch of surface on the
earth has about 15 pounds of air
sitting on it. Air is piled about 100
miles high on each square inch.

Property 3: Air Exerts Pressure

Air exerts pressure (in all
directions). The air above the
paper pushes down on it
(pressure). This pressure is what
makes the paper lay flat on the
table - it's being pushed down.
Even though they're too tiny to
see, all the molecules of air in the
atmosphere above your head
weigh something.

Property 4: Air can be Compressed

Air particles can be compressed
and squished together to take up
less space.

Property 5: Air is Affected by
Temperature

The greater the temperature, the
faster the air particles move
(increasing pressure)

The colder the air becomes, the
slower the air particles move
(lowering pressure)

Airplanes & Controlling
FlightAirplanes & Controlling Flight

Fuselage

The fuselage is the main body of
the airplane

It is a long, hollow tube that holds
all of the pieces of an airplane
together

It can be used to carry passengers
and cargo

Cockpit

The front part of the aircraft where
the pilots fly the plane from

It has all the controls to fly the
plane

Wings/Airfoil

To generate lift, the airplane must
be pushed through the air. The air
resists the motion in the form of
aerodynamic drag.

The wings generate most of the lift
to hold the plane in the air.

Modern airliners use winglets on
the tips of the wings to reduce
drag.

Turbines/Jet Engines & Propellers

The turbine engines, which are
located beneath the wings, provide
the thrust to overcome drag and
push the airplane forward through
the air.

Smaller, low-speed airplanes use
propellers for the propulsion
system instead of turbine engines.

Slats/Spoiler (located on wings)

Flaps are deployed downward on
takeoff and landing to increase the
amount of force produced by the
wing. On some aircraft, the front
part of the wing will also deflect.

Slats are used at takeoff and
landing to produce additional
force. The spoilers are also used
during landing to slow the plane
down and to counteract the flaps
when the aircraft is on the ground.

Aileron

Ailerons are small surfaces on the
ends of the wings

If they are angled in opposite
directions, the plane will roll in the
direction of the raised aileron

Ex. If the left aileron is lowered and
the right aileron is raised, the plane
will roll to the right

Rudder/Vertical and Horizontal
Stabilizers

To control and maneuver the
aircraft, smaller wings are located
at the tail of the plane.

The stabilizers’ job is to provide
stability for the aircraft, to keep it
flying straight.

The vertical stabilizer keeps the
nose of the plane from swinging
from side to side, which is called
yaw. Motion can be controlled by
the rudder.

The horizontal stabilizer prevents
an up-and-down motion of the
nose, which is called pitch.

The elevator can be controlled in
an up and down motion

When angled up, the nose of the
plane rises

When the elevator is lowered, the
nose drops

Elevators: Pitch

As the name implies, the elevator
helps “elevate” the aircraft. It is
usually located on the tail of the
aircraft and serves two purposes.
The first is to provide stability by
producing a downward force on
the tail. Airplanes are traditionally
nose-heavy and this downward
force is required to compensate for
that. The second is to direct the
nose of the aircraft either upwards
or downwards, known as pitch, in
order to make the airplane climb
and descend.

Ailerons: Roll

The ailerons are located at the rear
of the wing, one on each side.
They work opposite to each other,
so when one is raised, the other is
lowered. Their job is to increase
the lift on one wing, while reducing
the lift on the other. By doing this,
they roll the aircraft sideways,
which allows the aircraft to turn.
This is the primary method of
steering a fixed-wing aircraft.

Rudders: Yaw

The rudder is located on the tail of
the aircraft. It works identically to a
rudder on a boat, steering the nose
of the aircraft left and right. Unlike
the boat however, it is not the
primary method of steering. Its
main purpose is to counteract the
drag caused by the lowered aileron
during a turn. This adverse yaw, as
it is known, causes the nose of the
airplane to point away, or
outwards, from the direction of the
turn. The rudder helps to correct
this by pushing the nose in the
correct direction, maintaining what
is known as coordinated flight

sky science

galaxys an stars and plants

The Universe

Contains billions of galaxies, each
containing millions or billions of
stars.

The space between the stars and
galaxies is largely empty but
contains some scattered particles
of dust or a few hydrogen atoms
per cubic centimeter.

Space is also filled with radiation
(e.g. light and heat), magnetic
fields and high energy particles
(e.g. cosmic rays).

Galaxy

Earth is a part of the milky way
galaxy

The Milky way galaxy contains 200
billion stars

The closest galaxy to earth is the
Andromeda Galaxy which is 2
million light years away

You can see the andromeda galaxy
in the sky

Solar System

There are eight planets that make
up our solar system

Mercury

Venus

Earth

Mars

Jupiter

Uranus

Neptune

emit

give off

stars

reflect

give back or bounce

planets

Heavenly Bodies

satellites

A satellite is the name for any
heavenly body that revolves
around another.

The moon is a natural satellite for
the planet Earth.

The planets are natural satellites of
the Sun.

Humans have launched man-made
satellites so that they orbit the
Earth.

stars

Stars are the heat and light sources
of the universe.

They come in all shapes, sizes,
colours, compositions, and
temperatures.

They emit light through nuclear
fusion, which happens deep inside
the star.

The closest star to the Earth is the
Sun.

galaxies

A galaxy is a cluster of stars.

Our galaxy is called The Milky Way.

Approximately 200 million stars are
in the Milky Way. The Sun is one of
them.

constellations

A constellation is a group of stars
that appears to form a pattern in
the sky.

There are 88 constellations in the
sky.

The Big Dipper (Ursa Major), and
Orion are all constellations.

The Sun

The Sun is the star that is at the
center of our solar system.

The word solar means sun.

The sun emits light and gives off
heat.

Without the sun there could be no
life on Earth.

The Planets

There are 8 planets that revolve
around the Sun.

The planets are Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.

Each planet varies in size,
appearance, and composition.

The planets reflect light from the
Sun.

Moons

Moons are the natural satellites of
planets.

Some planets have no moons,
while some planets have many.

Earth’s moon is visible because it
reflects light from the Sun.

Comets

Comets are made up of mostly dirt
and ice.

They travel in elliptical orbits
around the sun.

They often have a “tail.”

asteroids

Asteroids are mini planets.

They travel in elliptical orbits
around the sun, just like planets.

They are found mostly between
Mars and Jupiter.

meteo`roids

`Meteoroids are small, solid bodies
from outer space.

They are attracted to Earth by
Earth’s gravity.

meteors

`They are called shooting stars as
they fall toward the Earth.

Are merorites that have entered
earths atmosphere and burn up.

meteorites

Meteors that reach the Earth’s
surface in solid form.

crime and investigation

There are 2 problems when it
comes to Evidence

Finding the clues.

Determining what the clues mean
or
DEDUCING (Deduction)

Observation Skills

Observation: the action or process
of
observing something or someone
carefully in
order to gain information.

To find clues, one must learn to
observe
correctly.

Looking for Signs/Clues

Every activity leaves behind a trail
of clues or
signs of what happened.

Footprints

Footprints can tell you a lot of
information about
an individual.

E.g. Speed, Direction, Weight,
Height, Where the
person has been

Speed

Short spaced footprints show a
slow walk

The wide the space, the faster the
person was
moving.

Weight

The deeper the footprint, the
heavier the person
was.

Scientists use weights on the same
ground to
estimate weight of person.

Height

A person’s height can be estimated
by using the
size of the footprint.

Fingerprints

Everyone has their own unique
fingerprint.

Chromatography

chromatography is a method that is
used to
separate colored chemicals or
substances, such as
the ink in pens.

Handwriting Analysis

Form – the slant, shape, and curves
of the letters

Lines – thickness of the lines made
by the pen or
pencil

Arrangement – The spacing of the
letters across
the page

Content – Spelling, punctuation,
and grammar

Fabric Analysis

Stretchability

Weight

Absorbency

Color

Reaction to heat

Texture