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Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza wrote extensively on the subject of determinism free will. He was a fierce defender of his deterministic views, and adamantly denied that free will existed at all. He described the world and the existence of humans as a never-ending chain of events (Lander University, 2024).
John Locke helped forge the way for philosophers by offering new definitions to the concepts of consciousness, self, and identity. His theory of mind is highly regarded, and is looked up to by many when seeking meaning in life, particularly with a focus on the human consciousness.
Aristotelian Ethics provide a contrast to Kant's beliefs, and hold virtuous personal values in the highest regard. He believed that humans exist to practice these virtuous behaviours and, by doing so, attain happiness in the form of eudaimonia (Gottlieb, 2009).
Immanuel Kant had several famous theories, perhaps none more influential than his work regarding ethics. He believed that humankind's purpose was to respect the humanity in other humans, following a "categorical imperative." This placed a heavy focus on duty (Misselbrook, 2013).
The Big Band is a popular theory that aims to explain how the universe came to be. It states that an infinitely hot and dense point inflated initially at immeasurable speeds. As it continued to expand, the speeds reduced to a more tangible level. This expansion continues today - an estimated 13.7 billion years later. Evidence for the Big Bang can be found in cosmic microwave background, a constant echo that can be heard as the universe continues its expansion (Howell & May, 2017). This theory is supported by science and accepted almost universally, but fails to address many philosophical questions, including: Where did the starting point come from; Why are we still expanding; What caused such a massive explosion where there had been nothing before?
Many philosophers struggle to address the question of "why" things exist. Bertrand Russell, for example, simply stated that, "the universe is just there, and that's all" (Broussard, 2016). He shared the popular belief that things simply exist to exist, and questioning this would lead to nowhere; eventually, the argument will return to the conclusion that things simply exist.
Seeing the effect that the change of an identity can have on the universe often helps philosophers to see the bigger picture. Leibniz wrote several pieces on change, and how the changing of any one thing would alter the entire concept and, in the process, change the universe. Explaining "why" things exist can be aiding with these theories, as viewing the universe as ever-changing and irreversible in its path reveals new ideas.
In the Christian Bible, for example, humans exist because God wishes for it. For this reason, many Christians believe humans should dedicate their lives to worship and prayer, returning God's love in the process (LCBC, 2022).
In Sikhism, the focus of religion lies within the idea of a soul. Humanity is expected to connect to the divine using their soul and spirit in prayer and meditation.
Many believe that human lives are predetermined, but also believe that there is a degree of free will within already-decided conclusion. This theory, also called compatibilism, finds a balance between the rigidity of determinism and free will (Andersen, 2023).
Historical determinism is a popular deterministic belief that all processes have a level of inevitability to them. It opposes the idea that humanity has had choices throughout evolution and modern history, arguing that humankind's progress has been predestined (Oxford Reference, 2024).
Much like many other questions posed in philosophical debate, there is no right answer to metaphysical cosmology's questions, which include: What started the universe; Why was the universe created; How do creation myths further our understanding of the universe; Does the universe have a definable purpose?
One cosmological perspective of god's existence takes on the view that god must exist for a simple reason: without a being enacting existence, nothing would exist. St. Thomas Aquinas argued with this logic, saying that everything exists thanks to god, because "all the causation and motion we observe can be traced back to god, who is an uncaused cause or unmoved mover" (Metcalf, 2021).
According to Stanford's Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2019), two varieties of being exist: "those that exist but could have failed to exist, and those that could not have failed to exist." If there is a god, it would have to be the latter. This raises more questions about god and its origin, and further complicates the discussion surrounding the existence of a god.
Polytheism celebrates multiple gods instead of a singular figure. Polytheistic religions often have different gods and goddesses to represent different values or ideals. Examples include Hinduism and Ancient Greek religion (van Baaren, 2023).
Monotheistic religions feature one god, who is often believed to exist on a different or higher plane than that of humanity. Christianity, Judaism and Islam are all monothiestic (van Baaren, 2023)
French philosopher Rene Descartes coined one of the most famous philosophical phrases in history with his "first principle": Cogito, Ergo Sum. The Latin phrase is translated as "I think, therefore I am," and is referenced often to support the idea that consciousness proves humanity's existence. He offered other ideas to support his principles, saying, "we cannot doubt of existence while we doubt." In short, we must exist in order to question our existence (Burns, 2001).
Theories about time can often get confusing - and fast. The relativity and arguments about the warp-ability of time make it a difficult subject to define or discuss. The following link delves into the intricacies of time and how it relates to the existence of the world: https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/does-time-exist-182965/
By looking at the abstract and "imaginary" objects that mathematical objects are, philosophers can formulate theories about the nature of the world in which they exist. For these abstractions to exist, does there not need to be a contrasting, very real plane? Since humans are the ones to perceive the abstract plane, would that place Humankind on the "real" plane?
