evolution

hierarchy of groupings

taxonomy = classification

groups of organisms

based on characteristics

attempted natural classification

aristotle in his classification of animals

animals

incests

birds

reptiles

worms

fishes

major groupings

kingdom

order

phylum

family

species

genus

class

Theories

pre darwin

phenomenon called natural selection

they changed

fittest individuals survived and reproduced

selective pressure

sexual selection

competition for food

competition for resources

certain phenotypes have survival benefit or disadvantage

evolving

Animals evolve

by adapting to their environment

eg. the golden birdwing butterfly

types of evolution

evolution takes place over generations

changes in the frequency

of a gene in a population

short periods of time

longer scaled/time line

example

birds from dinosoaurs

encompasses the grandest trends

creation of a new species

transformations in evolution

current theory

evolution takes natural selection

proposed mechanism

natural selection

adaptation

random variations

selective pressure

sexual selection

competition for food

competition for resources

certain phenotypes have survival benefit or disadvantage

variation in a population

different traits in population

distributed meiosis/sexual reproduction

mutations lead to variations

more offspring is made

fittest offspring survive

fluctuation in alleles from generation to generation

reduction in population

change gene distribution

caused by

environmental disaster

hunting of a species

habitat destruction

separated from a larger population

new isolated population

the low genetic variation

new geographic location

change in genes

allele frequency

reduction in genetic variation

small subset of a large population

factors causing genetic drift

# offspring in a generation

opposite natural selection

impacts bigger populations

best adapt to change

selective pressure

competition for food

competition for resources

certain phenotypes have survival benefit or disadvantage

Artificial selection

humans of desirable traits in plants and animals

natural selection

wide range of

phenotype

genotype

some produce

more offspring

fittest individuals survived and reproduced

sexual selection

of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex to mate

the evolution of certain conspicuous physical traits

females look at

competition between males

through combat

through visual display

migration

new geographic location

reproduce in their new populations

allelic change due to movement

different allele frequencies

gene transfer from one population to another

new traits in a population

slows rate of speciation

occurs when barrier formed

characteristics

physical

chromosonal

behavoural

leading to natural selection

succsessive genetic traits over generatin

preventing original reproduction of species

how a new kind of plant or animal species is created

types of speciation

allopatric

geological barrier

happens in different agrees

different habitat

different enviornment

reproductive barrier

isolation mechanisms

preventing reproduction

mating occurs

offspring doesn't survive

hybrid inviability

hybrid starilility

hybrid break down

no mating

isolation types

temporal

habitat

behavioral

mechanical

gametic

occurs in same enviorment

inbreeding

lead to harmful recessive alleles

does not change allele frequencies

desirable traits in mates

traits

behavioural

physical

females pick their mate

based off mating ritual

assorative mating

selective mating

affected by phenotypes

particular physical characteristics

individuals similar to themselves

Mendel's 2 laws

1.two copies of alleles of a particular gene

into the gametes.

The Law of Segregation

each inherited trait is defined by a gene pair

2. independent assortment of alleles of different genes

from each other during the formation of gamete

The Law of Independent Assortment

Crosses

two organisms that are identically hybrid for two traits

hybrid organism is one that is heterozygous

carries two different alleles

two different alleles of a particular gene or gene

the hybrid of two individuals

homozygous genotypes

which result in the opposite phenotype for a certain genetic trait.

The presence of two identical alleles at a particular gene

genotype

set of genes

Dominant genes

overriding the effect of a different variant

of the same gene on the other copy of the chromosome

Recessive gene

organism with 1 set of homologous chromosome

diploid cells include blood cells, skin cells and muscle cells

Phenotype

individual's observable traits

determined by

genomic makeup (genotype)

environmental factors

Alleles

Humans have 22 pairs

one pair of sex chromosomes

XX or XY

control the characteristics

Atypical Meiosis

pair of homologous chromosomes failed to separate

segregate at anaphase

both chromosomes pass to the same daughter cell

causes abnormal number chromosomes

types of genetic disorders

Down syndrome

Kleinfelters

Turner syndrome

mutation affects one gene

Sickle cell anemia

Classes of Aneuploidy

nullisomy

both homologues are missing

monosomy

only one copy of a chromosome

eg. turners syndrome

polysomy

trisomy

tetrasomy

more than the normal number of specific chromosome

polyploidy

triploid

tetraploid

Classed of Ploidy

Mistakes made when copying DNA

happens on a cellular level

occurs during cell division

change in DNA in future

types

Deletion

segments of DNA removed

inversion

a segment bas replaced

point

DNA transfered from molecule

translocation

transfer of molecule to another

gene pool

change in alleles

could lead to new species

two identical halves of a chromosome

joined at the

constricted region of a chromosome

helps in mitosis

spindle fibers

divides the genetic material in a cell

equally divides the chromosomes

from a parental cell

into two daughter cells

paired chromatids

helps divide a cells DNA during division

cell division in sexually reproducing organisms

reduces the number of chromosomes in gametes

steps

prophase I

Crossing over occurs between

prophase I

metaphase I

metaphase I

anaphase I

telophase I

prophase II

metaphase II

anaphase II

telophase II

vaccines trigger

humoral response

cell mediated response

exposes immune system to virus

allows body to fight it off

Macrophages

white blood cells that swallow up and digest germs

Cytotoxic T -cell

host defense against viral infection

through antigens

Hyper T cell

remembers antigen

B-cells

produce antibodies

type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype

function in the humoral immunity

B memory cells

remembers antigen exposed

remembers antibody that worked on it

Memory B cells circulate in the blood stream

virus structure

composed of

Nucleic acid: DNA or RNA

Capsid: a protein coat that gives a virus its shape. It makes up 95% of the virus.

types of vaccines

Toxoid vaccines

prevent diseases caused by bacteria

Subunit vaccines

contain only the essential antigens

Non-live vaccines

also fight viruses and bacteria

Conjugate vaccines

vaccines fight a type of bacteria that has antigens.

some of the organelles in eukaryotic cells were once prokaryotic microbes

Mitochondria and chloroplasts

same size as prokaryotic cells and divide by binary fission.

have their own DNA which is circular, not linear

How eukaryotic cells evolved from a prokaryotic cell engulfing another prokaryotic cell

mitochondria are descended from specialized bacteria

steps

sperm meets an egg

fertilized egg

formation of zygote

prenatal development of gametes

womb stages of organism’s development

egg and the male gamete spermatozoa

Fertilization of the female gamete

blastocyst development

emmbryo development

fetal devleopment

blastocyst implanation

DNA

Anatomy

similar structure

similar developmental patterns

ligaments

number of bones

tendons

different function

pentadactyl limbs

similar physical features and common ancestor

similar function

different anatomy

common ancestral feature

similarities in anatomy

differences in anatomy

adaptive changes

similar ancestry

compares locations

past locations

past geography

current location

distribution of species

location of fossils

fosil record

traces of an organism

preserved remains

types of fossils

Amber

Pseudofossils

Casts fossils

Trace fossils

Preserved remains

different contentes

different fossils

different species

similar species on different continents

similar anatomy

forming the modern continents

the Atlantic

Indian oceans

patterns of biological diversity

their underlying enviorment

historical causses

vascular tissue

comprised of the xylem and the phloem

phloem

jobs

transportation

distribution of organic nutrients

stores

carbohydrates

water

proteins

found in external root cylinders

Phleom loading

sink

metabolism

growth

storage

other processes

loading carbon into the phloem

for transport to different 'sinks'

causing water to diffuse

details

special diffusion

Osmosis is a special case of diffusion.

diffusion transports material

across membranes and within cells

reactions

isotonic

same concentration

cell has equal concentration of water

response to differing concentrations

of solutes on the two sides of the membrane

properties

1. thin enclosures that form closed boundaries.

2. consists of a phospholipid bilayer.

3. made up of

lipids

proteins

carbohydrates

4. held together by non-covalent interactions

5. fluid-like structure

cohesion

Dixon and Jolly in 1894

cohesion-tension theory

1. water is pulled through a leaf

2.water molecules in xylem under tension

3.then pulled up the plant stem

Water molecules have a strong mutual force of attraction

called cohesive forcedue

cell transportation

endocytosis

pinocytosis

cellular fluid and dissolved substances

molecules dissolved to liquid

necessary for cell

substances are brought inside a cell

cell engulfs

macromolecules

other cells

particles into its cytoplasm

nutrition in unicellular organisms

phagosome

ingestion of particles larger than 0.5 μm

into a plasma membrane derived vesicle

osmosis

water molecules

water concentration different from solute concentration

diffusion across a cell membrane

water moves in and out a cell

moving from high to low concentration

the movement of molecules across a cell membrane .

from lower concentration to a region of higher concentration

against the concentration gradient

parts

arteries

blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart

blood

Transports oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the lungs.

Red blood cells-

transport oxygen to your body's tissues

they carbon dioxide to your lungs for exhalation

White blood cells

important for protecting your body from infection

circulate in the blood and respond to damage or illness

Plasma

carry nutrients, hormones, and proteins

atria and ventricles contract

Atrial diastole

Atrial systole-

Ventricular systole

Ventricular diastole

Salivary glands

Ingestion

Pharynx

Esophagus

Stomach

Digestion

small Intestine

enzyme secreted

pancreatic juice

pancreatic lipase

amylase

Bile duct

Lipase

digest fats and lipids

proteases

amylase

Large Intestine

Absorption

Rectum

Elimination

gallbladder

stores bile

thick liquid

squeezes bile into small intestine

liver

pancreas

brain

hormones

hormones regulate the enzymes

hormone serotonin

multiply effect on the body

aids the body in the exchange of gases

between the

air and blood

between the blood and the body’s cells

consist of the

nose

Mouth

pharynx

larynx

trachea

bronchi

lungs

Helps oxygen breathed air to enter the red cells in the blood

For example, exposure to traffic pollutants

Breathing in air pollutants can irritate your airways

Exposure to air pollution

can lead to

lung cancer

heart attacks

stroke

asthma

why

Cells Lining the Respiratory Tract

brings air from the environment in contact with the delicate cells in our lungs

to provide oxygen and to expel carbon dioxide

factors

temperature

food

pollutants

population density

parasites

can lead to

Malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies

because

nability to absorb nutrients

effect your pancreas,

because the thick mucus produced blocks ducts in your pancreas

This stops proteins that break down your food

lung infections , pneumonia Inflammation of the lungs often caused by a bacterial or viral infection. or bronchitis

pneumonia Inflammation of the lungs often

caused by a bacterial or viral infection., or bronchitis

ideal breeding ground for bacteria and fungi

causes

normal thin secretions in the lungs to become very thick

Inflammation and infection of the upper airways and sinuses

on the organs of the respiratory system

effect on the organs of the Digestive system

effect on the The Circulatory system

higher heart rates and diastolic blood pressure

Higher BP can be the result of oxidative stress

impaired blood oxygenation

increased in parallel with myocardial work

stress on the arterial wall

Eubacteria

characteristics

unicellular

prokaryotic microscopic cells

shaped like

tight coils, grape-like clusters, filaments and thin biofilms

some have cilia and flagella for movement

examples

Escherichia Coli

Chlamydia Trachomatis

found as individual cells or in the large colonies

characteristics

ability to live in extremely hot or chemically aggressive environments

cell membranes of the Archaebacteria are composed of lipids

rigid cell wall provides shape

the presence of characteristic tRNAs and ribosomal RNAs

examples

thermophiles

methanogens

oldest living organisms on earth

classified as bacteria

characteristics

nuclear membranes around their DNA

sexual and asexual reproduction

examples

amoebae, red algae, dinoflagellates

large complex grouping of mostly unicellular eukaryotic organisms

characteristics

they are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and heterotrophic organisms

Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alternation of generation

feeding on dead or decaying material

examples

yeast

molds

mushrooms

characteristics

The plant cell contains a rigid cell wall.

They are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic organisms

examples

mosses, liverworts, ferns, trees, shrubs, herbs, and corn

characteristics

multicellular organisms

cells have membrane-enclosed organelles and a nucleus

organisms are multicellular, eukaryotic and without chlorophyll.

examples

Mollusca (octopuses, squid, cuttlefish)

Porifera (freshwater sponges, sea sponges)

Chordata (mammals, fish, reptiles, birds)

Cnidaria (jellyfish, anemone, corals)