KMF2024 Research Methodology

1_Introduction to RESEARCH

Purpose : secondary research

helping others understand the research results

using the results in appropriate contexts

raising new topics/question to study

Purpose : primary research

inquiry to gain understanding about some problems

Understanding things

Inductive (specific to general) - qualitative

developing generlisations from limited number of related observations or experiences

Deductive (general to specific) - quantitative

developing specific predictions from general principle, observtions, or experiences

Fundamental differences

Quantitative

state hypotheses before data are collected

controlled context

rarely interact

large number of participants

Qualitative

Not to state hypotheses before data are collected

uncontrolled context

interact extensively

small number of participants

Limitation: Scientific and Disciplined Inquiry Approach

inability to answer 'should' questions

inability to capture the full richness of the research site and participants' complexity

limitions of measuring instruments

the need to address participants' ethical needs and responsibilities

2_Ethics in RESEARCH

Basic Principles of ethical research

Informed consent

Coercion - not be forced into participation

Confidentiality

Debriefing - provide any necessary info about the nature of the research

Deception

Withdrawal from the investigation - participants rigth to withdraw at any time

Protection from harm (both physically and psychologically)

3_Selecting and Defining a Research Topic

Identify a topic or question to research

solving problems rather than finding a problem or topic to study

realities of research andf topic indentification

True research

identified topic - plan to carry out the research - collect pertinent data - analyse - make research outcome available

Non linear

Sources of research topics

Theories

Personal questions

observe surrounding environments, society, news articles, and ask questions

Replication

not identical but altered

Library search

most useful after a topic has been narrowed

Characteristics of GOOD research topic

Interesting

Researchable (can be investigated thru collection and analysis of data)

Significant (contributes to the improvement)

Manageable

Ethical

Stating the research topic

Quantitative (specific)

Qualitative (more general initially)

Review of related literature (start with backgorund of studies)

Identify, locate and analyse documents

f(x) - determine what has already been done / what needs to be done / rationale for research hypthesis / facilitates interpretation of study results.

when to stop ??? when search and benda sama je yang kua

evaluating the sources

relevancy (keyword - at least 3)

Quality (e.g. date of publication, refereed or not journals - must have peer review , evidence to support interpretations)

Astracting

involves locating, reviewing, summarising, and classifying references

Analysing, organising, and reporting the literature

A good hypotheses

based on sound reasoning

provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome

clearly states the expected relationship between defined variables

testable

4_Selecting a Sample

Definition

SAMPLING - process of selecting a number of participants for a study in such a way that they represent the larger group from which they were selected (population).

POPULATION - the group of interest to the research to which the result of the study will ideally generalise (first step in sampling)

Target population (generalise)

Accessible population (realistically select from)

Basic random sampling techniques

Simple random sampling

a type of probability sampling in which the researcher randomly selects a subset of participants from a population.

Stratified sampling

researchers divide subjects into subgroups called strata based on characteristics that they share (e.g., race, gender, educational attainment).

Cluster sampling (most useful & feasibls method) (less time and expense)

a probability sampling method in which you divide a population into clusters, such as districts or schools, and then randomly select some of these clusters as your sample

Systematic sampling

a probability sampling method where researchers select members of the population at a regular interval

Determining sample size

10-20% of population (descriptive research)

Selecting a nonrandom sample

convenience sampling

units are selected for inclusion in the sample because they are the easiest for the researcher to access.

purposive sampling

units are selected because they have characteristics that you need in your sample

quota sampling

data gatherers are given exact characteristics and quotad of persons to be interviewed

obtained from easily accessible individuals

5_Experimental Research

Experiment?

a research situation in which at least one independent variable, called the experiment variable, is deliberately manipulated or varied by the researcher.

Experiment Variables

an independent variable but not all independent variables are experimental varibales

Criteria (Well-Designed Exp)

Adequate experimental control

Lack of artificiality

Basis for comparison

Adequate information from the data

Uncontaminated data

No confounding of relevant variables

Representativeness

Parsimony

all characteristics being equal, a simpler design is preferred to a more complex one

Experimental Validity

Internal validity

basic minimum of control, measurement, analysis, and procedures necessary to make the results of the experiment interpretable

External validity

deals wirh the extent of generalisability of the results

Threats

History

Maturation

Instrumentation

Statistical regression

Differential selection of subjects

Experimental Designs

Posttest-Only Control Group Design (control for most of the same threats to internal and external validity as the classic controlled experimental design.)

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design (a true experimental research design that tests two groups before and after both groups receive the independent variable)

Solomon Four-Group Design

Factorial Designs (an experiment that has multiple factors or independent variables)

Repeated Measures Designs (an experimental design where the same participants participate in each independent variable condition)

Quasi-Experimental Research (studies that aim to evaluate interventions but that do not use randomization)

Posttest-Only, Nonequivalent Control Group Design (participants in one group are exposed to a treatment, a nonequivalent group is not exposed to the treatment, and then the two groups are compared)

Pretest-Posttest, Nonequivalent Control Group Design ( a treatment group that is given a pretest, receives a treatment, and then is given a posttest)

6_Correlation Research

Definition

determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables

degree of relationship

Purpose

determine relationships between variables OR use these relationships to make predictions

Process

Problem selection

Participant and Instrument Selection (30 min participants)

Design and Procedure

Data analysis and Interpretation (indicates the size and direction of a relationship)

near +1.00 (high size and +ve direction)

near 0.00 (variables not related)

near -1.00 (high size and -ve direction)

reliability

high .90s

moderate .80s

low .70s

Data collection

identify variables - indentify population(select a sample) - administer instruments - collect data (short period of time)

Data analysis

computing a correlation coefficient

linear relationship

curvilinear relationship

11_Action Research

an approach designed to develop and improve practice

help to make informed decisions-decisions that are data driven

Characteristics

Five C's

commitment

collaboration

concern

consideration

change

Conducting

Identify a topic or issue to study

conducting a literature review

developing research questions

Collect data

concept of triangulation (e.g. interview, observation, survey, etc)

spiraling nature (looking;observes the setting, thinking;interprets, acting;identifies a solution)

Analyse and interpret the collected data

Carry out planning and share the findings (verbally or written)

Taking action

help understand or try out new or needed methods

leads to : new question, new forms of understanding and deeper insights in practice

10_Qualitative Research

Nature

understanding of a social setting or activity as viewed from the perspective of the research participants

General steps

Indentify research topics

Review of research

Selecting participants

Collecting data

Analysing data

Reporting, evaluating, and interpreting research

Approaches

Case study

Ethanography (seeks to describe and analyse all or part of the culture of a community by identifying and describing)

Ethology (aims to generate a theory that explains, at a conceptual level, a process, and action, or a concept) - observation and interviews

Ethnomethadology

Grounded theory

Phenomenology

Symbolic interaction

Action research ( a study that can solving problem)

step 1 : selecting a research topic

step 2: reviewing the literature

step 3: selecting research participants

step 4: collect data

interview

experiences and feelings

types

structured (a specified set of questions)

unstructured (question being prompted by the flow of the interview)

semistructured (combination)

observation

types

participant observer

external or nonparticipant oberver (one who wathces but does not participate)

Field notes (records of what the observer has specifucally seen or heard - emid data)

Protocol (process / checklist) - step by step

memo writing (a form of thinking on paper)

Threat quality

observer bias

Halo effect (initial impressions concerning an observe affect subsequent observations)

observer effect

Triangulation (combination of qualitative, quantitative and documentation) - used for corrobrate data

Historical research

Data analysis

multistage process of organising, categorising, synthesising, interpreting, and writing about the data

Qualitative research

Data managing

Reading/memoing

Describing the context and participants

Classifying

Interpreting

Cyclical process

9_Inferential Statistics

inferences about about populations based on the results of samples

Standard Error

not affect realability

chances of any sample being exactly indentical to its population are virtually nil.

sampling error - expected variation among the means

sampling error (a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire population of data)

normally distributed

mean of the means

standard error of the mean (SD > bahaya , so kena cut)

Test of significance

Two-tailed test (two direction) A=B

One-tailed test (one direction)

t Test (two means)

pretest-posttest

t-test for pretest, if the difference is not significant, then t-test on the posttest

t-test for pretest, if the difference of significant, then ANCOVA (analysis of covariance)

ANOVA one way (two or more means)

post hoc test (determine which means are significantly different from other means)

Chi Square (nominal data)

8_Descriptive Statistics

Preparing data for analysis

scoring procedures

standardised instrument (follow test manual)

self-developed instruments

tabulation and coding procedures

tabulation : organising data, 2 x 2 factorial

code : ID for each participant (e.g. 1 for M and 2 for F )

major types

measures of central tendency

typical or average score of a group score

measures of variability

how spread out a group of scores are

measures of relative position

comparison

measures of relatioship

the degree to which two sets of scores are related

Pearson, r

Spearmen, Rho

7_Survey Research

assessing - attitudes, opinions, preferences, demographics, practices, and procedures

classifying

collection of survey data

self report

questionnaire

crtiticisms (misuse of d data)

paper-and-pencil Q (less time, less expensive, collection from much larger sample)

stating problem (no trivial issues)

selecting participants

constructing the Q (attractive, brief, easy to respond to)

followup activities (initial followup strategy)

Interview

telephone

observation (quantitative)

survey frequency

cross-sectional survey (advantage - convenience / disadvantage - selecting comparable samples)

single time period

stand-alone study

entire population - census survey

longitudinal survey (advantage - no comparability problem / disadvantage - sample tend to shrink over time, extended commitment)

collect 2 or more times

study the dynamics of an issue over time