Biology

biogeography

species

evolved in one location

darwin and Wallace hypothesized

biogeography suppots hypothesis

same species

in neighbouring continents

geographically close enviorments

populated by realted species

rather locations geographically separate

cacti native to deserts of noth/south america

not found naturally in deserts

animals resemble those in close continents

finches evolved

from mainland migrants

adaptive radiation

lizards found on the canary islands

similar to lizards found in west africa

closely related species found in same habitat

past/present geographical distribution

of species populations

factors determine those patterns

splitting of Pangea

Earth's continents large land mass

fossils dated/found

in multiple continents

with same age

likely organisms lived on Pangaea

organisms split up

fossil records

young layers of rock

chronological order of rock layers

oldest fossil in deepest layer

not all aorganism in fossil record

history of life

species alive in the past

preserved remains/traces and activity

types of fossils

information on traces

examples

tooth marks

footprints

nests

burrows

organism living

how it rested

how it hunted

true form fossils

examples

heads

fingers

torsos

limbs

not formed unsing impression

parts of organism

replaced by minerals

displaced minerals harden

become rock

shows

leaves

teeth

claws

embryos

skin/fur

hollow fossil

fossil makes a mark

image is backwards

links between groups of organism

shares characteristics

common to two seperate groups

Embryology

determine evolutionary relationships

pre birth stages in organism

different organism

similar embryonic development

example

vertebrata embryos paired pouches

similarities of embryos

common ancestrol origin

related species

share adult features

anatomy

vertebrate forelimbs

used for various functions

running

swimming

flying

contain same set of bones

organised similar ways

common ancestor

homologous structures

similar structural elements

differences

different functions

differ on organisms

lifestyle

environment

similarities

blood vessels

number of bones

ligaments

muscles

example

lower limbs of

perform same function

human/

functional similarity

species not closely related

example

bones support birds wings

material makes up insets wings

don't share common ancestor

homologous hair

found in mammals

analogous structures

no common evolutionary origin

different species evolve , different origin

DNA

species

simialr pattern of DNA

inhertied from the acenstor

example

gene sequences

related species

whales related to ungulates

dofgs related to bears

from their offspring

species pass their traits

genes for traits change by mutation

relationship from DNA

Carl Linnaeus

sweetish naturalist

system based on organism features:

physical

structural

biological classfication

Taxonomy

naming an organism

assigning organism to a group

history of taxonomy

identified by complexity

grouped animals by habitat

1000 species grouped by kingdoms

Greatest discoveries

binomial nomenclature

organism: two part scientific names

higher level classication

7 seven levels of taxa

collection of specimen

compromise specimen of :

plants

fish

shells

insects

invaluable resource of taxonomy

the "economy of nature"

ecology around natures concept

first naturalist to describe food chains

St.Augustine

animal classification

useful

harmful

useless

middle ages:

plants

classified as what they produce

fruit

vegetable

wood

Jhon Ray

first to use term species

classifeid over 19000 species of

birds

fish

four footed animals

7 levels of classification

made of genetic material/protein

invades living cells

non living structures

non cellular

very small

cant move on their own

cant eat/grow on their own

reproduces inside host cell

has spikes to attach

outside host cell

viruses inactive

contains capsid

nucleic acid core

contains DNA or RNA

enclosed in an evelope

Host specificity

all kingdoms can be infected

kingdom specific

may/may not be species specific

Types of viruses

DNA

double stranded DNA in capsid

RNA

single stranded RNA in capsid

Host range

organisms the virus infects

limited host species virus can affect

Classification

Structure/shape of capsid

type disease virus causes

type of genetic material

method of reproduction

shape/structure of virus

Lytic cycle

1. attachment/absorption

2. insertion/entry

genetic info takes over control of host cell

3.replication

4.assembly

5.lysis/release

Lysogenic cycle

1. attachment

2. entry

3. intergration

DNA inserts into hosts DNA

4. latency/incubation

5.replication

6.assembly

7. lysis

mutations

are mistakes

some will hurt bacteria

have no affect

or make it stronger

examples

HIV

Sars-COV-2

COVID-19

weaken form of a virus

exposes immune system to virus

allows body to fight it off

Dead virus

exposed to chemicals

capsid injected with chemicals

cause inflammation

attenuated virus

grown in lower body temps

without healthy immune

may have infection

Cytotoxic T -cell

destroys infected cells through antigens

Hyper T cell

remembers antigen

B-cells

produce antibodies

B memory cells

remembers antigen exposed

remembers antibody that worked on it

vaccines trigger

humoral response

cell mediated response

Plantae

cell type

eukaryotic/multicellular organisms

have tissues/organs

structure

cell wall surrounding cell membrane

regular plant cell look

nucleus/chloroplast also there

nutrition

create nutrition through photosynthesis

considered autotrophic

example

seaweed

kelp

mosses

liverworts

Animalia

cell type

multicellular

eukaryotic cells

structure

enclosed by plasma membrane

has membrane bound nucleus/organelles

no cell wall

nutrition

cant produce own food (heterotrophs)

feed of plants/animals

example

birds

cows

Fungi

cell type

eukaryotic/multicellular organism

structure

has membrane

bound nucleus

compared to bacterial plasmids

loops of DNA

thread like filaments

hyphae/hypa

dived into cells (septa hyphae)

Nutrition

from organic compounds

decompose deceased organic compounds

beneficial for vegetarians

cant produce own food

get nutrients from:

animals

plants

dead matter

considered heterotrophs

example

yeast

molds

mushrooms

sac fungi

mildews

Eubacteria

Cell type

prokaryotic

circular chromosome

Cell structure

single celled

lack nucleus

enclosed by a cell wall

made of cross linked chains

lack cell organelles

DNA not in a nucleus

Nutrition

take food from outside sources

heterotrophs

examples

Escherichia Coli

Salmonella

Archaebacteria

cell type

single cell organism

lacks:

nucleus

membrane

semi rigid cell wall

protects form environment

cell structure

Nucleoid

contains its DNA

Plasmid

DNA physically separated from chromosomal DNA.

Cytoplasm

Cellular fluid

Cell membrane

separates cell from outside environment

Cell wall

structure/protection from outside environment

Ribosome

protein synthesis.

Pilus

cell attachment

Archaellum

Tail-like structures assist in the movement

nutrition

chemotrophs

derive their energy and nutrients

from breaking down molecules in the environment

few species photosynthetic

capture the energy of sunlight

example

methanogens

halophiles

thermophiles

Protista

cell type

single celled

sometimes a colony cell

no tissues/organs

structure

one or many nuclei

animal cell like membrane

plant cell like wall

look like blob of slime

nutrition

can be autotrophic

or heterotrophic

example

amoeba

algae

proposed

species change over time

share common ancestor

living things

change over time

distribution of animals

divides Asian/Australian animals

discovered many specimen

Both researchers

created theory

mostly known as Darwin theory

mutation

change DNA sequence

DNA copying mistakes

during cell division

exposure

ionization radiation

mutagens

somatic mutations

in body cells

not passed on

recombination

DNA broken

recombined and produce

new combination alleles

genetic diversity

differences DNA sequences

different organisms

immigration of genes

transfer of genes

between different population

through migration

new organisms

join population

form changing

allele frequencies

natural selection

wide range of

phenotype

genotype

some produce

more offspring than others

likely reproduce/survive

than others

selection of individuals

certain traits

better suited survive

reproduce other populations

genetic drift

random change

in genetic variation

generation to generation

founding effect

change in gene pool

occurs when

individuals start

new isolated population

occurs human populations

lack of genetic diversity

medical concern

bottle neck effect

change gene distribution

result rapid decrease

population size

sexual selection

competition between males

through combat

through visual display

choice females make

for mates

non random mating

select mates

based on phenotype

increases proportion

of homozygous in a population

dosent affect

alleles frequencies

gene flow

movement of alleles

from one population

to another

from migration of individuals

two different inbreeding populations

different allele frequencies

change allele frequencies

in both populations

through flow or movement

of genes

mutation

randomly introduces

new alleles in population

change that occurs

in the DNA

more genetic variation

greater diversity

greater selective advantage

organisms charactistics changed

theory

living things evolved

simple forms

takes many generations

change in genes

species

over several generations

characteristics change

natural selection

old theories

pre darwinian

species specially created

no change

# of them same

adaptation

work of creator

decides

function organisms

structure organisms

variations imperfections

catastrophism

global castrophes

widespread extinctions

extinct life forms

replaced with new species

theory of actualism

geological formations of land forms

uniformitarianism

geological change

slow

gradual

geological time

millions of years old

beilived

organisms had a maker

god

inheritance acquired characteristics

organisms have

complexity

perfection

uses organ to grow

no organ, its small

pass trait to offspring

current theory

evolution takes natural selection

main idea

species

not created in present

evolved from ancestral species

related by decent

proposed mechanism

natural selection

adaptation

environment combination of

random variations

environmental influence

organisms adapt/change

better adapted to enviorment

survive/reproduce more

not so adapted

reproduce/survive less

adaptation

helps organism survive

better in environment

biological diversity

example

blend with dark areas

hard for predator see

on bark

predator can easily see

reproduction decreases

artificial selection

produces varieties of organisms

breeding of animals

breeder chooses traits

distributive selection

results

elimination extreme phenotype

favours extreme range phenotype

rather than intermediate

stabilising selection

acts against variants

favours intermediate phenotype

directional selection

favours phnotypes

to an extreme

results

distribution curve of phenotype

towards extreme

individual

potential interbreed

produce

viable offspring

formation new species

from old species

modes

allopatric

sncestral population

seperated

from geological barrier

example

aquatic species

separated

from construction dams

adaptive radiation

diversification of

common ancestrol species

into adapted species

sympatric

split

differnt gene pools

share same location

new species

can origniate

same area of parents

reproductive barrier

stop species

from producing

fertile

viable hybrid offspring

pre zygotic barriers

reproduction happens

before zygote happens

sometimes dont occur

temporal isolation

breeding different times

habitat isolation

breed different habitats

behavioural isolation

little/no sexual attraction

mechanical isolation

structural differences

stop gamete exchange

gametic isolation

gametes die

before uniting gametes

post zygotic barriers

fertilisation successful

between related species

zygote/embryo

fails develop properly

hybrid inevitability

unlikely live long

hybrid sterility

infertile

gamete not produced

hybrid breakdown

crossed species viable/fertile

two hybrids mate

offspring weak/sterile

divergent evolution

2/more species

evolve different traits

results

diversifying selection

genetic drift

evidence

homologous features

convergent evolution

unrelated species

similar phenotype

live similar environment

evidence

analogous features

co evolution

one species evolves

in response to another

Eukaryotic cells evolved when multiple cells joined together into 1

endosymbiont

organism lives in another

Subtopic

eukaryotic creatures made of creatures

Subtopic

first law

seperation of two copies

of gene during formation of gametes

during formation

allele pair separate from each other

each gamete receives1 pair

offspring one copy from each parent

alleles can be

homozygous

heterozygous

second law

independent assortment

alleles of different genes

independently segregate from one another

occurs during prophase 1 of meiosis

meiosis

failure of homologous chromosomes disjoin correctly

failing to separate correctly

Translocation Heterozygotes

higher frequency abnormal meiotic disjunction

unbalanced gametes in translocation

result in inviable embryos

Non disjunction can be in both Meiosis I/Meiosis II

chromosomal errors

Chromosomal Abnormalities

occur when an error in cell division

zygote formed from gamete not experienced non-disjunction

resulting offspring have extra/missing chromosomes

Conditions

Patau’s Syndrome

Edwards Syndrome

Down Syndrome

Klinefelter Syndrome

Turner’s Syndrome

Structural Abnormalities:

Inversions:

Deletions:

Translocations:

Rings:

mutations

prevent embryo from surviving until birth

important genes themselves dont cause disease

genetic disorders caused by

variants alter/eliminate gene’s function

“the cystic fibrosis gene

Air pollution

can irritate airways

shortness of breath

coughing

wheezing

asthma

chest pain

exposure to it

risk of lung cancer

heart attacks

stroke

sometimes premature death

chemicals

chemical filled air

leads to lung disease

examples

noxious gas

chlorine

side effects:

sneezing

coughing

nasal congtestion

sore throat

smoking

toxic substance

triggers inflammation

destroys lungs structure

secondhand smoking

affect lung function

coal workers

black lung disease

coal dust inhaled

exposure to coal dust

scarring in lungs

hard to breathe

changes in electrolyte transport system

cells absorb too much sodium/water

prevents enzymes reaching small intestine

to digest food

Undigested food cause

pain

cramping

gas

constipation

blockages

block normal absorption of nutrients/fat in intestines

causes

poor digestion

slow growth

trouble gaining weight

clog the ducts of the pancreas

cause decrease in secretion of enzymes

from the pancreas, normally digest food

made of

lipids

proteins

carbohydrates

thin enclosures

forms closed boundaries

held by non-covalent interactions

consists of phospholipid bilayer

all cells/organelles surrounded by a membrane

fluid like structures

asymetrical structures

Cell transport

movement of particles

from area of high concentration to low concentration

simple diffusion

movement of particles

from high to low concentration

particles move at equal rates

no energy to move particles

osmosis

special diffusion

movement of water down concentration gradient

area of high to low area of water concentration

reactions

isotonic

same concentration

cell has equal concentration of water

facilitated diffusion

spontaneous passage of molecules/ions

across the membrane

ions cant pass through simple diffusion

bulk transport

Move large amounts of material out/in cell

secretory vesicle

from Golgi body or ER

endocytosis

phagocytosis

cell eating

cell engulfs

macromolecules

other cells

particles into its cytoplasm

pinocytosis

cell drinking

molecules dissolved to liquid

necessary for cell

active transport

movement of material using energy

use another class of membrane proteins

to transport against concentration gradient

actively pump compounds to direction wants to go

transport of water

transpiration

water evaporates from living surface

osmosis

water molecules diffuse across a membrane

water moves in/out a cell

moves from high to low concentration

water concentration different from solute concentration

cohesion

hydrogen bonds make water molecules stick

cohesion-tension theory

1. water pulled through a leaf

2.water molecules in xylem under tension

3.then pulled up the plant stem

phloem

vascular tissue

in charge of

transportation

distribution of organic nutrients

stores

carbohydrates

water

proteins

found in external root cylinders

Phleom loading

loading carbon into the pholem

transport to different sinks in plants

sink

metabolism

growth

storage

other processes