Biotechnology Term 2
Electrophoresis
uses agorose gel
made from algae/seaweed
is placed in a liquid called running buffer
is a conducter
will protect the user from electric shock
seperates fragments by size
using electrical field
DNA is negatively charged
small pieces of DNA travel further
long pieces travel slow and lag behind
DNA will move towards positive charge
can determine the length of DNA
using a 'ladder'
can make it easier to determine the size/length of an unknown DNA through comparing it to known DNA lengths
Restriction Enzymes
an enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequences
DNA needs to be cut with it before electrophoresis
to isolate sections you want
Recognition Site
the site where the restriction enzyme will cut DNA at a specific sequence
can produce sticky ends and blunt ends
each band is made up of billions of molecules of DNA
you can see the DNA due to a dye being added
DNA Manipulation
genetic engineering
Restriction enzymes
restricts the action of attacking the organism
aka restriction endonucleases
cuts DNA
will cut DNA at a specific sequences called "recognition sites"
produces overhanging ends
sticky ends
can bind to any complementary DNA
produces equal lengths
blunt ends
not easy to join back together
act as scissors
ligase acts as tape/glue
Ligase joins sticky ends to form recombinant plasmids
ligase is an enzyme that glues DNA together
allows the opportunity to put a gene of interest into a plasmid
plasmid - circular DNA found in bacteria
small supplemental circles of DNA
self replicating
Polymerase Chain Reaction
to make lots of copies of the target DNA
only need one piece of DNA
Materials needed
template strand/target DNA
DNA polymerase enzyme
taq polymerase
heat resistant polymerase enzyme
will add the nucleotides to make new copies of DNA
nucleotides
(A,T,C,G)
Primer
can bracket target sequence
define section of DNA to be cloned
Step 1 - Denaturation
separates DNA strands
approx 90 degrees
Step 2 -Annealing
cool to 50 degrees
primers connect to target
Step 3 - Elongation/Synthesis
use nucleotides to make new DNA strand
Antimicrobials
Disinfectants
used to kill pathogens on surfaces
eg. door handles and hospital equipment
dettol, pine cleen, white king
Antiseptics
used to kill pathogens
isocol, betadine
non-specific
use to reduce the number of pathogens and prevent them from spreading
Pathogens - a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease
Antibiotics
kills bacteria
by blocking essential processes, killing them or stopping them from growing/multiplying
not viruses or fungi
target cell walls, ribosomes, enzymes for DNA & RNA synthesis
narrow spectrum - if they affect only a few types of bacteria
broad spectrum - if they affect a wide group of bacteria
more potential to make superbugs
bacteriostatic - slows the growth of bacteria
bactericidal - kills bacteria
Antibiotic Resistance
1. a few drugs are resistant
2. antibiotics kill bacteria causing illness susceptible/sensitive
3. drug resistant bacteria are not allowed to take over
4. some bacteria give their drug resistance to other bacteria
causes naturally, through genetic changes
causes of antibiotic resistance
over prescribing of antibiotics
patients not finishing treatment
over-use of antibiotics in livestock and fish farming
poor infection control in hospitals & clinics
lack of hygiene and poor sanitisation
lack of new antibiotics being developed
Superbug
bacteria that are resistant to several types of bacteria
when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials
Antivirals
extracellular form of the virus is called a virion
once it penetrates the host, it dissembles
freeing its genetic material to translate new viral proteins
aims to target virus
not host cell
Biotechnology Term 1
Cells and Organelles
Eukaryotes
Animal Cells
Organelles
Lysosomes
breaks down and digests waste
transports undigested materials to plasma membrane
Small Vacuole
a vesticle enclosed by a membrane
commonly filled with fluid and waste
Plasma membrane
controls entry and exit of substances from the cell
Endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth
site of lipid (fat) manufacture & metabolism
steroid/hormone production
Rough
passageways that carry proteins around the cell
protein production, protein folding, quality control
Mitochondria
provides energy for a cell to move and divide
"powerhouse of the cell"
Ribosomes
protein synthesis
Golgi Body
packages and transports materials around the cell
involved in transporting materials
Nucleus
Contains linear DNA
Plant Cells
Organelles
Cell wall
provides cell with support and shape
protects cell
Chloroplast
responsible for photosynthesis
turns sunlight into energy
Large vacuole
Plasma membrane
controls entry and exit of substances
Mitchondria
Nucleus
Ribosomes
protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth
Rough
Golgi Body
Rigid, structural shape
have membrane-bound organelles
most commonly multicellular
animals, plants, fungi, protists cells
Prokaryotes
Organelles
Plasma membrane
controls what goes in and out of cell
Cell wall
provides the cell with support and shape
protects cell
Cytoplasm
gell-like substance
holds organelles
DNA
have circular DNA
plasmid/s
no nucleus
bacteria
no nucleus
most commonly unicellular
more energy efficient
more simple - compared to eukaryotes
Cell Theory
all living things are made up of cells
cells are the smallest working units of all living things
all cells come from pre-existing cells
through cell division
DNA, RNA and Proteins
DNA
Nucleic acid
DNA and RNA molecules
the nucleotide is the monomer (subunit) of nucleic acid
phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) and nitrogenous base
nitrogenous bases - A, G, T, C and U
A and T in DNA
G and C in DNA and RNA
A and U in DNA and RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
forms a double strand
double helix
long chain of nucleotides
Composition
deoxyribose sugar
phosphate backbone
adenine (a)
guanine (g)
cytosine (c)
thymine (t)
Function
long term storage of genetic information
transmission of genetic information
to make other cells and new organisms
monomer - nucleotide
polymer - nucleic acid
RNA
Ribonucleic Acid
single stranded
shorter chain of nucleotides (compared to DNA)
Composition
ribose sugar
phosphate backbone
adenine (a)
guanine (g)
cytosine (c)
uracil (u)
Function
used to transfer genetic code from nucleus to the ribosomes
to make proteins
Types
Messenger RNA
mRNA
Transcription
Translation
takes place in the cytoplasm (at ribosomes)
translating the mRNA sequence into an amino acid chain
amino acid chain = polypeptide
takes place in the nucleus
when the DNA code becomes RNA code
the DNA bases (A,C,T,G) are grouped in threes
known as triplets
the RNA bases (A,C,G,U) are grouped in threes
known as codons
eg. ATG becomes AUG
RNA polymerase binds the DNA just before the genes
separates the two strands - closes just behind it
like a zip
mRNA will be complementary to DNA
used to carry a message based on the DNA
copies DNA's code and carries the genetic information to the ribosomes
produced in the nucleus but travels through the pores in the nucleus, into the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA
tRNA
transfers amino acids to the ribosomes where proteins are made
Ribosomal RNA
rRNA
along with protein, makes up the ribosome
Proteins
made up of amino acids
about 42% of body's dry weight
different arrangements of amino acids can make proteins that are extremely strong, or elastic and flexible
depends on overall function
Codon Charts
aids in identifying the amino acids made, based on the mRNA
Example
template DNA - TAC CTT
coding DNA - ATG GAA
mRNA - AUG GAA
amino acids - meth, alu
Microorganisms
Pathogens
pathogens are organisms that cause harm to another organism
viruses or harmful bacteria
Bacteria
there are differences in bacteria due to
the environment they live in
aerobic bacteria
grows in the presence of oxygen
anaerobic bacteria
grows in the absence of oxygen
acidphiles
live in environment as acidic as pH 1-0
alkaliphiles
live in alkaline environments up to pH 10-11
the food they eat
heterotroph
energy comes from eating other organisms/organic carbon
autotroph
make their food using either photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
the temperature they can survive in
their shape
spherical
referred to as cocci
streptococcus
rod-shaped
referred to as bacilli
e. coli
spiral
their Gram Stain
either gram-positive or gram-negative
the antibiotics used to treat them
they impact they have on human life
reproduce via binary fission
exponential growth if bacteria has correct nutrients and conditions to grow
considered living
due to having cells
treated using antibiotics
specifically targets bacteria (no other body cells)
isn't always harmful
Viruses
considered non-living
due to being non cellular
they do not fit into the 5 kingdoms of life
animals, plants, fungi, protists & bacteria
they are all hosts of viruses
viruses infect all types of organisms
they require a living host to reproduce
are unable to function outside of a living host cell
contains
protein coat/capsid head
nucleic acid
can be RNA or DNA
Bacteriophage
infects bacteria
the host is bacteria specifically
Bacteriophage Life Cycle
attachment
the phage attaches to the surface of the host cell
entry/penetration
the viral DNA enters the host cell
biosynthesis/synthesis
phage DNA replicates and makes new virus parts
assembly
viruses assemble
release (lysis)
host cell lyses and releases new viruses
Similarities
both can cause disease
both can be considered pathogens
both prokaryotic
no nucleus, yet still contains genetic material
Differences
viruses are non-living, bacteria are living
viruses don't fit in any kingdom of life
viruses always cause harmful effects, bacteria can be useful and dont always cause harm
Diseases
HPV
human papillomavirus
spread through intimate contact
genital-skin during sexual acitivty through tiny breaks in the skin
not spread through blood or body fluid
surgery, cryotherapy, podofliox etc
incubation period - 2-3 months
Pneumonia
streptococcus pneumoniae
transmitted when people infected cough, sneeze or talk
sends respiratory droplets into air
incubation period - depends on type of pathogen causing it
hospital to recieve antibiotics and fluids through an intravenous line
Applications of Biotechnology
Blue
aquatic
ocean resources to create products
Golden
bioinformatics
computational science
Purple
laws, ethics and philosophy around biotech
Grey
environmental protection
environment and biodiversity
Yellow
food production
goals include producing more nutritious and fortified foods while reducing environmental impacts
adult cow stem cells to make bovine muscle tissue (hamburger meat)
land is decreased by 99%
greenhouse gas emissions down by 96%
water use down by 96%
golden rice
Green
agriculture-related
improving crops in a accurate, targeted way
Black
bioterrorism and biological warfare
the use of biological agents to cause illness or death to plants, animals and humans
vaccines are an innovation that is effective against bio-terrorism
Red
biological advances within the health department
producing new drugs, use of stem cells etc
CRISPR technology
pair of molecular scissors and can cut DNA and edit genomes
can aid in curing/treating a range of medical conditions
White
industrial processes and gene based technologies
use of enzymes and microorganisms to produce products
GMOs
Genetically Modified Organisms
to protect crops from insects
extend growing season
fishberries
plants to produce new proteins
BT corn
improve quality of food
golden rice