Biology 311C Extra Credit

Big Idea 3

Compare
the
processes
of
transcription
and
translation
between
prokaryotic
and
eukaryotic
cells
in
terms
of
location,
time
and
cell
components.

Prokaryotic Cells

Transcription

Because there is no nucleus to separate the processes of transcription and translation, when bacterial genes are transcribed, their transcripts can immediately be translated. Unlike Eukaryotic cells, Prokaryotic cells don't need to go through the pre-mRNA phase. Transcription and Translation are coupled here.

Translation

Eukaryotic Cells

Transcription

Transcription and translation are spatially and temporally separated in eukaryotic cells; that is, transcription occurs in the nucleus to produce a pre-mRNA molecule.

The pre-mRNA is typically processed to produce the mature mRNA, which exits the nucleus and is translated in the cytoplasm. Introns must be cut out before the mRNA can be functional. This occurs in the cytoplasm.

Translation

Distinguish
between
genotype
and
phenotype,
and
give
examples
that
relate
this
distinction
to
the
dominant
and
recessive
effects
of
certain
alleles
and
to
the
molecular
mechanisms
of
gene
action.

Genotype

Genotype is the assortment of genes an organism posseses.

Phenotype

Phenotype are the visible genes that are expressed

Big Idea 2

Compare
and
contrast
mitochondria
and
chloroplasts
in
terms
of
how
they
are
uniquely
structured
to
make
ATP
during
oxidative
or
photo-‐phosphorylation
respectively.

Chloroplasts(plant cells)

The chlorophyll absorbs the sunlight that is used. The Electron Transport Chains, photosynthetic light-capturing systems, and ATP synthase are all contained in the thylakoid membrane. The Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts.

Mitochrondria(Animal Cells)

While the intial part of glycolysis occurs outside of the mitochondria, it is still important in the production of ATP. The Krebs cycle occurs in the Matrix of the mitochondria. The Electron Transport Chain occurs in an inner part of the mitochondria called the Crista.

State
an
overview
of
cellular
respiration
in
terms
of
the
overall
redox
changes
and
energy-‐coupled
reactions
that
occur.

Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and the Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. Oxidative phosphorylation(electon transport chain) is carried out in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
If no oxygen is present, respiration occurs by glycolysis and fermentation. Both occur in the cytosol.

With Oxygen
In glycolysis, glucose(6 carbon) is broken down into two molecules of a 3-carbon molecule called pyruvate. This change is accompanied by a net gain of 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules. Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses carbon dioxide to form acetyl-CoA. When acetyl-CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle, chemical energy is released in the form of NADH, FADH2, and ATP. The electron transport chain allows the release of the large amount of chemical energy stored in reduced NAD+ (NADH) and reduced FAD (FADH2). The energy released is captured in the form of ATP (3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2). Around 38 ATPs are formed.

No Oxygen
Fermentation makes it possible for ATP to be continually produced in the absence of oxygen. By oxidizing the NADH produced in glycolysis, fermentation regenerates NAD+, which can take part in glycolysis once again to produce more ATP. Significantly less ATP is formed, however.

Big Idea 1

Compare
cellular
structures
and
their
corresponding
functions
in
the
three
domains
of
life.

Archaea

Archaea are single celled, and lack organelles. They can live in a braod range of habitats. Each cell above is one Archaea cell.

Cellular Structure:
DNA-Genetic Information
Cell Membrane-Inner fluid
Cell Wall-Outter Protective Membrane

Eukaryotes

The Eukaryotes span a wide variety of kingdoms and all of them have different characteristics, features, and habitats. Featured in the picture are Protists, Animals, Plants Fungi.

Cellular Structure:

All eukaryotic cells have
nucleus
DNA
plasma membrane
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm/cytoskeleton

Most eukaryotic cells also have other membrane-bound internal structures called organelles.
Mitochondria
Golgi bodies
Lysosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Vesicles

There are a few major differences between animal, plant, fungal, and protistan cells, and guess what? Here they are:

All plant cells have
cell wall made of cellulose
central vacuole
Chloroplasts

Some animal and protistan cells have
Flagella
Cilia

All animal cells have
Centrioles

All fungal cells have
cell wall made of chitin.

Bacteria

Bacteria are the most widespread and diverse prokaryotes and are now classified into multiple kingdoms. Each rod-shaped structure showed in the picture is a bacteria cell.

Cellulaqr Structure:
DNA
Cytoplasm
Cell Wall
Ribosomes

Recognize
living
organisms,
and
be
able
to
classify
them
into
domains
and
kingdoms
reflecting
their
evolutionary
history.

Eukaryotes

Plants

Despite Fungi being its own Kingdom, it is often included in the Plant Kingdom.

Fungi

Animals

This concept map starts off by focusing on the big picture, and then progressivly narrowing it down to cells, the basic units of life. I started off by detailing the Domains, and from the domains to the kingdoms. Then I switched gears and showed how the cells that make up these kingdoms get their energey, and finally I finish with what makes each organism unique. In Big Idea 1, I touched on the differences between the three domains and the different kingdoms of organisms. Big Idea 2 focuses on the processes that power the cells that make up the organisms. Finally, Big Idea 3 compares the different processes and genetic make up of these organisms

The Animalia Kingdom is further divided into mammals, fish, birds, insects, and etc.

Protists

Bacteria

Eubacteria

Archaea

This concept map starts off by focusing on the big picture, and then progressivly narrowing it down to cells, the basic units of life. I started off by detailing the Domains, and from the domains to the kingdoms. Then I switched gears and showed how the cells that make up these kingdoms get their energey, and finally I finish with what makes each organism unique. In Big Idea 1, I touched on the differences between the three domains and the different kingdoms of organisms. Big Idea 2 focuses on the processes that power the cells that make up the organisms. Finally, Big Idea 3 compares the different processes and genetic make up of these organisms

Just because an organisim posses a certain gene(genotype) doesn't mean it will be the gene visibly expressed(phenotype). For example, take Joey. Joey's genotype may include the dominant gene for black hair, Bb, and the recessive gene for brown hair,rr. His genotype includes both the dominant and recessive genes, however, as far as his phenotype is concerened, he just has black hair. This is similar to how cells know what kind of cell to be. This applies, most notably, to plants and animals.

Eukaryote Translation vs. Prokaryote Translation

1.

Ribosomes. Eukaryotic ribosomes are larger. They consist of a 60S large subunit and a 40S small subunit, which come together to form an 80S, compared with the prokaryotic 70S ribosome.

2.

Initiator tRNA. In eukaryotes, the initiating amino acid is methionine rather than N-formylmethionine. However, as in prokaryotes, a special tRNA participates in initiation. This aminoacyl-tRNA is called Met-tRNAi or Met-tRNAf.

3.

Initiation. The initiating codon in eukaryotes is always AUG. Eukaryotes. The AUG nearest the 5′ end of mRNA is usually selected as the start site. A 40S ribosome attaches to the cap at the 5′ end of eukaryotic mRNA and searches for an AUG codon by moving step-by-step in the 3′ direction. This scanning process in eukaryotic protein synthesis is powered by helicases that hydrolyze ATP. Pairing of the anticodon of Met-tRNAi with the AUG codon of mRNA signals that the target has been found. In almost all cases, eukaryotic mRNA has only one start site. A prokaryotic mRNA can have multiple Shine-Dalgarno sequences and start sites, and it can serve as a template for the synthesis of several proteins. Eukaryotes utilize many more initiation factors than do prokaryotes. The difference in initiation mechanism between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is a consequence of the difference in RNA processing. The 5′ end of mRNA is readily available to ribosomes immediately after transcription in prokaryotes. In contrast, pre-mRNA must be processed and transported to the cytoplasm in eukaryotes before translation is initiated. There are secondary structures that must be removed to expose signals in the mature mRNA. The 5′ cap provides an easily recognizable starting point.