BIG METAPHYSICAL QUESTIONS

The existence of mathematically "abstract" objects poses a whole new set of questions for philosophers, as numbers and other mathematical objects do not really exist in a physical sense, but are still treated as if they are physical. They do not move or change over time, but the changing aspects of their meanings can complicate questions for philosophers.

By looking at the abstract and "imaginary" objects that mathematical objects are, philosophers can formulate theories about the nature of the world in which they exist. For these abstractions to exist, does there not need to be a contrasting, very real plane? Since humans are the ones to perceive the abstract plane, would that place Humankind on the "real" plane?

Scientifically speaking, an overwhelming amount of information has been found supporting the existence of Earth, its Solar System, and their inhabitants. The existence of supernovae, other systems, stars, black holes, and other space-related phenomena all point towards existence. Humanity's ability to take in all of these various events furthers this belief.

Theories about time can often get confusing - and fast. The relativity and arguments about the warp-ability of time make it a difficult subject to define or discuss. The following link delves into the intricacies of time and how it relates to the existence of the world: https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/does-time-exist-182965/

Similar to other arguments about why the universe was created, many philosophers simply believe that the world exists because if it did not, consciousness would have no purpose. This idea has been echoed in countless theories and abstractions throughout philosophical history.

French philosopher Rene Descartes coined one of the most famous philosophical phrases in history with his "first principle": Cogito, Ergo Sum. The Latin phrase is translated as "I think, therefore I am," and is referenced often to support the idea that consciousness proves humanity's existence. He offered other ideas to support his principles, saying, "we cannot doubt of existence while we doubt." In short, we must exist in order to question our existence (Burns, 2001).

Different religions have very different ideas on the existence of a god, with many arguing that there is no god, or that multiple gods exist. Atheism - the absence of belief in a god or gods - has grown in popularity in recent years (Statistics Canada, 2021). Throughout history, theological disputes have resulted in innumerable conflicts. The belief that there is one, all-powerful god is known as monotheism, while belief in multiple gods is known as polytheism.

Monotheistic religions feature one god, who is often believed to exist on a different or higher plane than that of humanity. Christianity, Judaism and Islam are all monothiestic (van Baaren, 2023)

Polytheism celebrates multiple gods instead of a singular figure. Polytheistic religions often have different gods and goddesses to represent different values or ideals. Examples include Hinduism and Ancient Greek religion (van Baaren, 2023).

Necessary facts, as defined in the lesson, are true across all possible worlds. Conversely, possible facts may be true in some possible world, even if that world does not really exist. Arguments attempting to prove the existence of a higher power often cite god as a necessary being, or one that must exist in all world if it exists at all.

According to Stanford's Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2019), two varieties of being exist: "those that exist but could have failed to exist, and those that could not have failed to exist." If there is a god, it would have to be the latter. This raises more questions about god and its origin, and further complicates the discussion surrounding the existence of a god.

In the scope of cosmology and cosmogony, a god could play an important role in answering important questions about the universe. Some theorists believe that taking a theological approach can aid in understanding many popular metaphysical cosmology questions.

One cosmological perspective of god's existence takes on the view that god must exist for a simple reason: without a being enacting existence, nothing would exist. St. Thomas Aquinas argued with this logic, saying that everything exists thanks to god, because "all the causation and motion we observe can be traced back to god, who is an uncaused cause or unmoved mover" (Metcalf, 2021).

As mentioned in the lesson, metaphysical cosmology focuses on the place of humanity in the universe, looking beyond scientific research and theorizing responses to key questions about life and its purpose in the universe (Upper Canada District School Board, 2024).

Much like many other questions posed in philosophical debate, there is no right answer to metaphysical cosmology's questions, which include: What started the universe; Why was the universe created; How do creation myths further our understanding of the universe; Does the universe have a definable purpose?

Generally speaking, a deterministic view of the universe views all events, including choices and decisions made by humans, as predetermined. Although many theories stem from determinism, with some stating that the humans exist simply to fulfill the destinies that are set out for them. Some state that a person's genetic makeup will determine all decisions for a person before the occur (Andersen, 2023).

Historical determinism is a popular deterministic belief that all processes have a level of inevitability to them. It opposes the idea that humanity has had choices throughout evolution and modern history, arguing that humankind's progress has been predestined (Oxford Reference, 2024).

Free will contrasts the inevitability of determinism, claiming that actions are changeable and the future is not predetermined. It is the presence of choice. Humanity's role in a universe of free will consists of making these decisions and choosing what paths to take in life.

Many believe that human lives are predetermined, but also believe that there is a degree of free will within already-decided conclusion. This theory, also called compatibilism, finds a balance between the rigidity of determinism and free will (Andersen, 2023).

Most religions seek to answer questions of place and meaning in the universe, with many contrasting opinions on humanity's place in the universe. The wide range of answers highlights the great variance in values from one religion to another.

In Sikhism, the focus of religion lies within the idea of a soul. Humanity is expected to connect to the divine using their soul and spirit in prayer and meditation.

In the Christian Bible, for example, humans exist because God wishes for it. For this reason, many Christians believe humans should dedicate their lives to worship and prayer, returning God's love in the process (LCBC, 2022).

Finding the identity of a being can be challenging as the subjective nature of identities can create arguments philosophically. Observing how these identities change and react when acted upon can reveal valuable information about the universe, reality, and existence. A deeper understanding of entities in the universe can help philosophers determine the reasons for existence.

Seeing the effect that the change of an identity can have on the universe often helps philosophers to see the bigger picture. Leibniz wrote several pieces on change, and how the changing of any one thing would alter the entire concept and, in the process, change the universe. Explaining "why" things exist can be aiding with these theories, as viewing the universe as ever-changing and irreversible in its path reveals new ideas.

Philosophers can gain information and formulate theories about the existence of "things" by observing objects and the way the react to their surroundings. Properties of certain objects can reveal relationships between two seemingly unrelated things, helping find the reasons that things exist.

Many philosophers struggle to address the question of "why" things exist. Bertrand Russell, for example, simply stated that, "the universe is just there, and that's all" (Broussard, 2016). He shared the popular belief that things simply exist to exist, and questioning this would lead to nowhere; eventually, the argument will return to the conclusion that things simply exist.

The existence of something instead of nothing has generated questions about the effects of space and time on the universe for generations. Scientists aim to answer these questions objectively and put an end to speculation about the ways and reasons the universe was created. By observing the ways that energy moves and matter is created, a number of theories about the birth of existence have been created. Questions about time and its passing have only complicated discussions about the universe's existence.

The Big Band is a popular theory that aims to explain how the universe came to be. It states that an infinitely hot and dense point inflated initially at immeasurable speeds. As it continued to expand, the speeds reduced to a more tangible level. This expansion continues today - an estimated 13.7 billion years later. Evidence for the Big Bang can be found in cosmic microwave background, a constant echo that can be heard as the universe continues its expansion (Howell & May, 2017). This theory is supported by science and accepted almost universally, but fails to address many philosophical questions, including: Where did the starting point come from; Why are we still expanding; What caused such a massive explosion where there had been nothing before?

The meaning of life is subjective, and a philosopher's opinion on the connection between mind and matter will change their view of life's purpose. Exploring the potentially dualistic nature of the mind can reveal deeper truths about the ultimate goal in human life.

Immanuel Kant had several famous theories, perhaps none more influential than his work regarding ethics. He believed that humankind's purpose was to respect the humanity in other humans, following a "categorical imperative." This placed a heavy focus on duty (Misselbrook, 2013).

Aristotelian Ethics provide a contrast to Kant's beliefs, and hold virtuous personal values in the highest regard. He believed that humans exist to practice these virtuous behaviours and, by doing so, attain happiness in the form of eudaimonia (Gottlieb, 2009).

Philosophers often focus on the human consciousness to find answers to questions about the purpose of life. By observing existence itself and asking questions about how consciousness functions, more can be revealed about the true meaning of life. As mentioned in the course, the axiomatic nature of consciousness gives meaning to life; if it were meaningless, why would it exist?

John Locke helped forge the way for philosophers by offering new definitions to the concepts of consciousness, self, and identity. His theory of mind is highly regarded, and is looked up to by many when seeking meaning in life, particularly with a focus on the human consciousness.

For some, existing is simply to fulfill the destiny that has been already laid out for you. Others believe that life is lived in the choices made with the free will that all humans have. Most lie somewhere in between the two opposing arguments, believing in some form of determinism whilst also holding free will-oriented beliefs as well.

Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza wrote extensively on the subject of determinism free will. He was a fierce defender of his deterministic views, and adamantly denied that free will existed at all. He described the world and the existence of humans as a never-ending chain of events (Lander University, 2024).