Morphology
WORDS
Word Classification
Lexemes = Content
Major Lexical Classes
Nouns
Depends on the word they are describing
Adjective
Describes Properties
Depend on the Property
Verb
Copulatives: link elements
Intransitive: no DO
Transitive: need DO
Ditransitive: need 2 DO
Adverb
Circumances: manner, frecuency, duration,...
Adposition
Circumstances: location, time,
instrument and company
Minor Lexical Classes
Article
Quantifier
Demonstrative
Possessive
Numeral
Pronoun
Auxiliary
Negation
Conjunction
Interjection
Morphemes = Functions
Inflectional/Grammaical Morphemes
Form of means required by context
Depend on position
Singular, Plural and Possesive forms
Adj- superlatives or comparatives
Verb - TAM
Derivational Morphemes
Create/divide new words from
already existing ones
Change the semantic class
Semantic classifiers
Follow - semantic rules
Word Formation
New Words
Affixation: lexeme + morpheme
Suffixation: 2º morpheme
Prefixation: 1º morpheme
Compounding: lexeme + lexeme
Root Compounding
Combination of open categories
Synthetic Compounding
Copulative Compounding
Conversion: change of class with Ø
Blending: 2 parts of 2 lexemes
Cliping: reduction of a lexeme
Derivation:
Class 1 affixes: modify base
Class 2 affixes: no change - base
PHRASES
CLAUSES: with 1 Verb
Adverbial
Epress circunstances
Optional
Will affect the meaning
Not necessarry for structure
Types
Adjuncts
- Flexibility regarding position (commonly end)
- Organized in terms of manner (closer to the vb), place and time(end)
- Can appears as adverbs (closed and open class), AdvP, NP and adjuncts (scpecial cases)
Conjuncts
- Tells how the speaker perceives the semantic connection between 2 cl
- Connectors of structures between Ph, Cl, paragraphes or tx
Disjuncts
- Separate from the clause
- Their message refers to the whole clause
- Always separeted by comas, before, in the middle or after the clause
- Represent a comment from the speaker
- Can appear as AdvP, PP, finite and non-finite ph
CLAUSES:
with + Verbs
Subordination
Adverbial Clauses
Replace AdvP
Different semantic roles: time, place,...
Relative Clauses
Nominal modifiers in complex NP
Realized by finite and non-finite cl
Can be restrictive (obligatory) and noun
restrictive (optional), presented by comas
Adjectival Clause
Behave like AdjP:
-Noun complement clauses
-Adjectival commplement clauses
-Relative clauses
Subject of non-finite
nominal clauses
Non-finite subordinate clauses
4 Structures: infinitive with to, without to,
gerunds and participle
Nominal Clauses
-Behave and carry out functions of NP
-Realized: Dependent declarative, dependet
interrogative and headless relative clauses
Located in Clausal subjects, gram and logical subjects and clausal objects
Function as subj, DO, IO, SubjC, ObjC
Dependent Clauses
Carry out well defined functions
Presented: finite, non-finite vb and nonvb cl
One clause is constituent of other clause
Coordination
Shared subject
You can eliminate 1 subject
of the 2 clauses
Independent dubject
I the subjs are different
both must be written
2 clauses of the same status and function
Verb Complement
Do not fullfil the criteria of the previous obj
Prepositional Object
Take a preposition whose PC can becomme
the subj of a passive phrase.
PC-subj and the PObj-end of the phrase
Predicator Compliment
Do not passivize or the do it wih a different meaning
4 types of vb: relational vb, vbs of measure, vbs of equal reciprocity and vbs with obligatory complements of direction
Subject Complement
Related to the Subj of the cl
Obligatory after Copular vbs
Cannot be intransitive with the same meaning
Number and gender agreement with the subj
and reflexive pronoun
Object Complement
Completes the Pred when the lexvb leads
to specify characteristics of the DO
Placed after DO
Number agreement with the obj compounds
Demoted Object
Only complement in the Pred of a
passive clause
Only in passive clauses with
ditransitive vbs
Realized by NP, PP (but only if vb
needs prep)
Indirect Object
First of the 2 obj of a phrase
Can become the subj of a passive phrase
Can be replaced by to- phrase and for- phrase
Realized
Nominal phrase
Wh- phrase
-ing clauses
PP
Direct Object
Immediatly after the verb
Subject of a passive construction
If phrase has 1 object - DO
If phrase has 2 object - ID - DO
Realized
Final clauses
Non-finite clauses
Anticipatory IT+extraposed cl
PP of time and place
Unheaded
Prepositional Phrase
2 Functions
1º Preposition Function
Always by a preposition
Governs the function
Pron/Vb/Noun has to be
Obligatory
2º Prepositional Complement Function
Can be performed
Noun Phrase
Wh- clauses
-ing clauses
Prepositoinal Phrases
Adverbial Phrases
Can be detached from the prep
In Wh- clauses
In clauses functioning
Post-modifiers: NP, AdjP
Prepositional Compliment
Noun Phrases
Adjectival Phrases
Preosition Ø Head
Preposition governs the other constituents
Not visible
When followed by a pronoun
Distinction
Subjective Case
Objective case
Headed
Main element = Head
States category
Divided
Can be reduced
Head can replace the phrase
without affecting the structure
Noun Phrase
Head: noun or pronoun
Determiner Function
Exclusive NP
First element - Fixed Position
Optional (more obligatory than mod)
Advantages
Noun = NP
Determinant = beginning of NP
Determiner - Modifier - Head
Fixed word order
Pre-determiners
Central determiners
Post-determiners
Modifier Function
Position
Pre-modifiers: before head
Post-modifiers: after head
Discontinuous modifiers
Can be carried out multiple times
In different positions
In a discontinuous way
Can be omitted without affecting the structure
Scripted modifier: describes the referent
Can be pre-mod with intensifying words
Classifying modifier: demotes the referent
Can be NP, AdjP, AdvP, PP
Adjectival Phrase
2 Functions
Head
Modifier
Similar Properties
Exceptions on omission
1. There's a set of adj that never allow for
pre or post-mod --> one word adj phrase
2. Another set of adj do need mod,
only require on post-mod
Order determined by semantic class
or the property described
Post-modifiers - complex
Noun+Adj= idiomatic expression
When the head is a pronoun
When the adj is followed by a PP
When the adj head is followed by an infinite cl
When the adj=comparative degree or
preceded by as, mor, less, + cl of comparison
When the adj is followed by a finite or nonfinite cl
Most behave as noun ones
Adverbial Phrase
Same functions
There're adv that don't allow for modifiers
Cannot be reduced
Head cannot replace the phrase
without causing problems to the structure
Verb Phrase
Head
Lexical Verb
Last constituent in the structure
Exclusive features
Aspect
Voice
Tense
Mood
Agreement
Finite Verbs
Morphologically marked
In person and/or number
Structure
Auxiliary + Lexical verb
May contain more than 1 Auxiliary (3-5)
Negation
On the first Auxiliary/Modal Verb
Not attached to the lexical auxiliary
Except
Be and Have
Predicate
Predicator
Verb Phrase
Function Complimet
Presence determined
Are obligatory, except DO
Position is fixed
Can become subjects of passive constructions
Subject
Element of which somehting is predicated
Presented
Declarative Clauses (before vb)
Interrogative Clauses
Wh-questions ( Wh- = sb)
Pronominal Forms- sub function
Form of a possesser element (pron/name)
Realized
Noun Phrase
Prepositional Phrase
Adverb Phrase
Finite and Non-finite clause
Anticipatory it+ extraposed clause
Empty it
Existential There+ postposed nominal phrase