SBI3CI
ANATOMY OF ANIMALS
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
HOMEOSTASIS
I did not know about homeostasis until the topic was introduced to us in class. I had no idea that shivering and sweating were ways that the body attempted to regulate the temperature
BODY SYSTEMS
I learned that there is a way to remember the 11 body systems (LENSRIMCRED). I did not know much about the heart or the way blood flows through the body.
I learned that veins have valves just like the heart. The valves are like doors.
Before, I did not know that the gallbladder and bladder were two different organs. After dissecting the fetal pig, I understood that they were definitely not the same thing.
I learned what all the body systems did and how they all worked together to make sure that the body runs smoothly.
VOCABULARY I'VE LEARNED
ABSORPTION - The process in which something gets absorbed.
VILI - Finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption
PLASMA - A fluid that is in the blood that is clear/translucent
NEPHRONS - Functional units in the kidneys.
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions. For example, your body remains the same temperature even when the environment is either hot or cold
In order to provide warmth when your body is cold, your body beings to shiver. Shivering produces heat, which is produced as a waste product
In order to cool down, the body sweats. Evaporated cooling-> blood vessels dilate, and water is released which helps cool your body down.
If your body gets too hot, you can get hyperthermia, and if your body gets too cold, you can get hypothermia. When cells are too hot or too cold, the enzymes will denature, causing the body to shut down
BODY SYSTEMS
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system is an important part to the immune system. The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymphatic ducts, lymphatic nodules, lymphatic vessels, and lymphatic nodes.
The lymphatic system
EXCRETORY SYSTEM/URINARY SYSTEM
The excretory system has the job of eliminating cellular waste produccts or any other substances that are not needed from the body. The structures within the excretory system include the kidneys, ureter, bladder, and urethra.
In females, the urethra is about an inch and a half long, In males, it is eight inches long.
KIDNEYS
There are four stages that the kidneys go through. They are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion.
FILTERATION
Blood travels to a nephron and fluids are processes to enter Bowman's Capsule
Labelled diagram of the kidneys.
REABSORPTION
Reabsoption happen in the loop of henle.
SECRETION
During secretion,substances that have been left behind are moved to the nephron for elimination.
EXCRETION
Urine is carried by ureters, which allow urine to be stored in the bladder. When the urine has to be released, the urinary sphincter opens and urine exits through the urethra.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is broken down into two parts-the central nercous system and the peripheral system. The nervous system helps the body recieve information about our surrounds, helps with motor functions, and helps with sensations.
A brain pun
The fetal pig's brain
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The adult skeletal system has a total of 206 individual bones. The skeletal system includes the skull, pelvic girdle, ribs and sternum, lower limb, upper limb, and vertebrae.
The skeletal system
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The reproductive system is the only body system that is different in both genders. In males, the two major parts of the reproductive system is the penis and the testes. In females, the main parts of the reproductive system is the labia minora, labia majora, clitoris, and Bartholin's gland.
The reproductive system
The male pig's reproductive system. Under the pig's umbilical cord, there is one hole, indicating that the pig is a male
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The integumentary system involves skin. The integumentary system consists of hair, nails, epidermis, sebaceous glands, hypodermis, and dermis.
the integumentary system
MUSCLE SYSTEM
Muscles help complete daily functions like sitting, running, walking, talking, and standing.
The muscle system
The muscle system has three different types of muscle groups. They are the involuntary smooth muscle, and skeletal muscles. The involuntary muscles are found in the heart.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
There are three main parts of the circulatory system is the heart, vessels, and blood.
BLOOD
Blood consists of four components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
Red blood cells carry a majority of oxygen and carry an iron containing protein called hemoglobin. Red blood cells lack of a nucleus to make room for more oxygen. There are dips in red blood cells that show where the nucleus should be.
Red blood cells
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
White blood cells defend the body against bacteria and viruses. . They help destroy invaders by making antibodies.
White blood cells with red blood cells.
PLATELETS
Platelets gather at damaged blood cells and join together and clog the area.
Platlets
PLASMA
Plasma is clear and is made up of 91% water and makes up 55% of blood.
An example of how much plasma, platelets, and red and while blood cells make up.
VESSELS
Blood vessels make a pathway in and out of the heart. There are three different kinds of blood cells. They are arteries, veins, and capillaries.
ARTERIES
Arteries are large, thick walled, and muscular. They carry oxygenated blood.
An artery
CAPILLARIES
Capillaries are so small that you would need a microscope to look at them. They are thick and carry blood through the body under low pressure.
VEINS
Veins are large and thin walled vessels. Veins have one way valves to prevent blood and oxygen from going back through the veins.
Veins
HEART
The heart is responsible for pumping the blood that is in your body. The blood enters the heart through the inferior and superior vena cava. The blood then leaves the heart through the valves , into the pulmondary veins and to the lungs where it collects oxygen.
Anatomy of the heart
Image of the pig heart.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system allows someone to breathe in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. Breathing has two phases: inspiration and expiration.
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The upper respiratory tract allows almost every living organism to smell. Mucus and small hairs within the nosal cavity help filter the air that is taken in.
Upper respiratory tract.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The lower respiratory tract consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. The larynx ensures that food and air go in the right direction. The trachea has rings around it that is made up of cartilage to prevent it from closing. The bronchi branch into the lungs, and the lungs transport air to the alveoli for gas exchange.
The probe is pointing at the pig's trachea
The pig's lungs
Picture of the alveoli
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is the system that is in charge of the hormones in the body. The endocrine system consists of the hypothalamus, pineal glands, thyroid glands, adrenal glands, gonads, thymus, and pituitary glands
The endocrine system in females and males
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - There are four stages of digestion. The stages are: ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion.
ACCESSORY ORGANS
PANCREAS
The pancreas is responsible for neutralizing acidic things in the stomach that might be acidic before they continue to move to the small intestines.
LIVER
The liver is simular to a filter. It is responsible for cleaning blood and draining the stomach, spleen, and the large and small intestines. The liver makes bile, which helps break down fats.
Fetal pig's liver. We found that our liver seemed to be darker in colour than the other pigs that were being dissected around us.
GALLBLADDER
The gallbladder stores bile.
The probe is pointing to the pig's gallbladder.
LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is responsible for collecting any vitamins and minerals that may have been missed in the small intestine. Any undigested food is feces.
A virtual image of the large intestine
INGESTION
The first step of digestion is ingestion. Teeth chew food and saliva not only moistens the mouth, but the enzymes in saliva help break down the food. The tongue has the responsibility of pushing the food down the esophagus.
Ingestion starts at the mouth.
Picture of the pig's esophagus and epiglottis. This pig was apart of our fetal pig dissection. (The probe is pointing at the epiglottis)
DIGESTION
The food is now in the stomach and moves in and out through the sphincters. Hydrochlorc acid breaks down the food. The stomach is lines with mucus to protect it from burning due to the acid.
Fetal pig's stomach.
The inside of the fetal pig's stomach after it was cut open.
Once the food exits the stomach, it goes to the small intestine. The small intestine is separated into three parts, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine only absorbs fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids
Digestion
ABSORPTION
The small intestine is lined with vili. Most absorption takes place within the small intestine.
Absorption
EGESTION
Egestion happens within the large intestine. During egestion, toxic wastes are removed. Feces contains toxic waste and cellulose.
Egestion
CELLULAR BIOLOGY
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
MICROSCOPE
I have not only learned how to use a microscope properly, but I have also learned the proper names for the parts of a microscope and the functions.
CELLS
Although I didn't learn much about cells, I expanded my knowledge on cells and cell organelles
I have a better understanding of what roles cell organelles play and what their functions are.
OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION
Osmosis and diffusion was fun to learn for the first time. I did not know that molecules can move basically by themselves, along with water.
MACROMOLECULES
I learned that some macromolecules are beneficial to the body.
I learned that carbohydrates are separated into twp categories - monosaccharides and polysaccharides.
I learned how to test for macromolecules
ENZYMES
I learned about how enzymes can be denatured
I learned that enzymes and a new substrate can either have an induced fit, or a "lock and key" fit.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
I've learned the difference between active transport and passive transport.
VOCABULARY I'VE LEARNED
ORGANISM - An individual animal, plant, or single celled life form/anything that is living
CELLS - The smallest functional and structural of an organism, which is usually microscopic.
ORGANELLE - A number of organized structures that live within a cell
WET MOUNT - A glass slide holding a specimen suspended in a drop of liquid (water) for microscopic examination
UNICELLULAR - Anything consisting of only one cell
SEMI-PERMEABLE - Allows nutrients in the cell and lets waste products out.
ENZYMES - A substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.
DENATURED - Destroying the characteristic properties by adding heat, acidity, or cold to anything (specifically enzymes)
MACROMOLECULES - A protein, lipid, carbohydrate, or nucleic acid.
CELL THEORY
The cell theory is a historic theory stating that: all living things are made up of cells, all cells come from pre-existing cells, and the cell is the basic unit of structure in organisms
MICROSCOPE
Microscopes help prove the cell theory. Microscopes help you see things that cannot be seen by the naked eye by magnifying everything that is put under it. Occasionally, when using a microscope, you may have to make a wet mount
LABELLED DIAGRAM OF A MICROSCOPE
CELLS
Cell introduction video
PROKARYOTES
Prokaryotic cells do not have nuclei and no membrane bound organelles. They are unicellular.
EUKARYOTES
Eukaryotes have nuclei and have membrane bound organelles
There are two types of eukaryotic cells: Animal and plant cells.
Both of these cells function similarly. Cell organelles are only found in eukaryotic cells. Most are membrane bound
Anatomy of a plant cell.
Anatomy of an animal cell
CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane surrounds the cell and decides what enters the cell, and what leaves the cell. The cell membrane is semipermeable. The cell membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer.
Found in: animal, plant, and prokaryotic cells
NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the control center of the cell and stores DNA/chromosomes. It is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. The nucleus contains the nucleolus, which makes ribosomes.
Found in: plant and animal cells
RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are the smallest organelle and are not surrounded by a membrane. Ribosomes are responsible for making proteins.
Found in: animal, plant, and prokaryotic cells.
ENDOPLASMIC RITICULUM (ER)
There are two kinds of ER. They are rough ER and soft ER. Rough ER is covered with ribosomes. Smooth ER has no ribosomes and makes hormones and lipids (fats).
Found in: animal and plant cells
GOLGI APPARATUS
The golgi apparatus is responsible for collecting, modifying and packaging molecules in the cell. It also distributes and moves molecules.
Found in: animal and plant cells
LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are the trash disposal of the cell. They contain digestive enzymes that break down all waste
CELL WALL
The cell wall surrounds cells and is outside of the cell membrane.
Found in: plant cell
OSMOMSIS AND DIFFUSION
DIFFUSION
Molecules spread tend to spread out over a large area. Everything spreads out but water. All of the molecules tend to move apart within time and move from an area of high concentration, to low concentration.
Some things that can affect the way these molecules move can be: temperature, pressure, and concentration.
OSMOSIS
With osmosis, water is the only thing that moves.
HYPOTONIC
The solution one side of a membrane where the solute concentration is less than on the other side. Hypotonic solutions contain a low concentration of solute
HYPERTONIC
The solution on one side of a membrane where solute concentraion is greater than on the other side. Hypertonic solutions contain a high concentration of solute
Osmosis and diffusion lab in class. The dialysis tube is filled with cornstarch and water. (1)
Left the dialysis tube overnight. The water moved into the tube without needed to puncture large holes into it. The starch in the tube went from white to a deep purple. (2)
ENZYMES
Enzymes are made up of amino acids. There are specific enzymes for a specific substrate. A substrate is like a puzzle piece that fits with an enzyme.
Example of a substrate and an enzyme
When the new substrate cannot fit into the enzyme, it alters it's shape. This is called an induced fit.
When the new substrate can fit into the enzyme, it's called lock and key.
Enzymes can be denatured by a change of temperature (too hot or too cold) and change in pH.
This was tested with a potato enzyme lab we did at the beginning of the semester. Four test tubes contained potatatoes and each test tube contained different things. Test tube A had hydrogen peroxide, test tube B had water and was put in a hot water bath and hydrogen peroxide was put in afterwards, and test tube C had been put in the fridge to get cold before putting hydrogen peroxide in it.
Test tube A (room temperature) had the best reaction, proving that enzymes work best in room temperature.
Test tube B (hot) had no reaction. The enzymes were denatured.
Test tube C (cold) had a very small reaction. It wasn't as active as test tube A.
The best temperature for enzymes in the human body is 37 degrees.
MACROMOLECULES
Lab that we did in class to test for macromolecules. A and C - carbohydrates, E - protein, D - starch
LIPIDS
Lipids are made up of fatty acids. They are responsible for making up the cell membrane and providing the cell structure, providing isolation, and storing long term energy. Fatty foods contain lipids and an example of these fatty foods are oils, eggs, and nuts.
Foods that contain lipids
INDICATOR TEST: Paper bag test. Smear the substance onto the paper bag and if there is a grease stain or is translucent, the substance contains lipids.
Paper bag test done in a lab in class. The grease indicates that the substance (peanut butter) was a lipid.
PROTIENS
Proteins are made up of over 15 different amino acids. Proteins are responsible for building and repairing muscle and tissue. Proteins are found in meat, fish, nuts, and milk.
Foods that contain proteins
INDICATOR TEST: To test for proteins, use biuret's solution. If its positive, it'll turn from blue to purple.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are made out of simple sugar (monosaccharides), and complex sugars (polysaccharides). Carbohydrates are responsible for providing the body with short term energy. Monosaccharides are found in sweet drinks, fruits and vegetables, and milk. They provide a short burst of energy. Polysaccharides are found in foods like pasta, bread, and potatoes. They take longer to digest and provide a longer burst of energy.
Foods that contain carbohydrates.
INDICATOR TEST: To test for monosaccharides, you use Benedict's solution. If the solution goes from blue to green/brown/orange, it is a carbohydrate. To test for polysaccharides, you use iodine. If it goes from orange to black/purple, it is a carbohydrate as well.
CELL TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT - Does require energy
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Pumps
PASSIVE TRANSPORT - Does not require energy
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Diffusion
MICROBIOLOGY
BACTERIA
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
BACTERIA
I learned that there are different types of bacteria. Two examples of the different types of bacteria are archea and eubacteria.
I didn't know that some bacteria require oxygen to live.
VIRUSES
After learning about viruses, I now know that viruses are not considered living or non-living, how viruses reproduce, and that they remain in two cycles, the lysogenic and lytic cycle.
I learned that there viruses cannot be cured, and that when they do "go away," they are just in the dormant cycle. Some bacteria are antibiotic resistant.
FUNGI
I learned a lot about fungi after studying this unit. I didn't know much about fungi until i learned that it reproduces, it is the largest living organism, and that there are different kinds of fungi.
I now know that there is one kind of fungi that can be edible and some that are dangerous to eat. Before, I used to believe that fungi were just mushrooms.
PROTISTS
I had no idea what protists were before we started this unit. I learned that all protists have a way of moving and that some eat other protists. Amoebas are an example of protist eating protists that move with their pseudopods and then engulf/absorb their food. Out of all of the protists that we have learned about, amoebas are my favourite due to the fact that they engulf their food instantly.
VOCABULARY I HAVE LEARNED
EUBACTERIA - "True" bacteria
BINARY FISSION - Asexual reproduction. Binary fission is the common way that prokaryotes (such as bacteria) reproduce.
FLAGELLA - Threadlike structure that allows bacteria and cells to move/swim around.
LOCOMOTION - Ability to move from one place to another.
PILI - Short, thick outgrowths that help cells attach to different surfaces.
MULTICELLULAR - An organism consisting of many cells.
MULTI-NUCLEATED - Having more than one nuclei.
AUTOTROPH - An organism that can provide nutrition to itself by using organic matierials.
SEDENTARY - Don't move around and have lives that are anchored somewhere.
FRONTLINE: HUNTING THE NIGHTMARE BACTERIA
Watching Frontline: Hunting the Nightmare Bacteria opened my eyes and showed me what dangerous bacteria can do to someone's body. For example, Addie's story/segment showed me how quickly bacteria moves. One day Addie was fine and the next day she was in need of a lung transplant
Addie's story
Video about bacteria that we watched in class.
CHARACTERISTICS
Bacteria contain plasmids, and ribosomes. Bacteria are able to share plasmids with each other and they do not have nuclei. Bacteria are unicelluar, and prokaryotic. Some bacteria require oxygen to survive and others do not.
REPRODUCTION
When reproducing, bacteria do not go through mitosis or meiosis . Bacteria either reproduce asexually using binary fission, or sexually using conjugation. This is how bacteria become antibiotic-resistant.
WALLS
Bacteria have cell walls that are made up of peptoglycan, which are polysaccharides linked with chains of amino acids. Some bacteria have a layer made out of gelatin which is called a capsule, which surrounds the cell wall.
MOVEMENT
For movement, some bacteria have flagellas, and some have pili. Bacteria can be moved by air currents, water currents, and on any surface.
SHAPES
Some common shapes of bacteria are coccus, bacillus, and spirillum.
GRAM STAINS
Purple - Positive
Pink - Negative
HARMFUL BACTERIA
Pathogens are harmful bacteria that are parasitic and cause disease.
GOOD BACTERIA
Cyanobacteria and nitrogen-fixing bacteria are two examples of good bacteria. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in nodules of soybeans, peanuts, and clover. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic
VIRUSES
CONTROVERSY/THE VACCINE WAR
Watching The Vaccine War helped me understand that there are some people who believe that vaccines cause diseases like autism. This video didn't change how I felt about vaccines but gave me valid reasons as to why vaccines are good. Before watching The Vaccine War, I thought that vaccines were good for you, but now I understand the benefits of getting vaccinated and the dangers of not getting vaccinated.
VIRUS CHARACTERISTICS
Viruses are not made up of cells, do not use energy, do not produce waste, do not reproduce on their own, and do not grow. For these reasons, virues are not considered living. However, viruses are not considered living or non-living because they have attributes of both.
VIRAL STRUCTURE
Here are two typical viral structures.
CLASSIFICATION
Viruses are normally classified by hot range and the size and shape of the capsid
HOST RANGE
Example: cold virus, rabies, HIV.
SIZE AND SHAPE OF CAPSID
Type of genetic material.
REPLICATION
LYSOGENIC CYCLE
The lysogenic cycle is the dormant cycle. Bacterium is copied and is present in every daughter cell.
LYTIC CYCLE
There are four steps of viral replivation. In this process, genetic material is duplicated before the host cell divides. These next four steps are apart of the lytic cycle, which is the active cycles.
ATTACHMENT
The virus reconizes a host cell, attaches itself to it, and enters the host cell
SYNTHESIS
DNA or RNA direccts the host cell to make new virus parts. An example of the virus parts that the host cell are supposed to make are: capsid proteins, nucleic acid, and enzymes.)
ASSEMBLY
All viral parts are brought together to make into viruses.
RELEASE
The new virus parts are
PROTECTION
Viruses are cured by vaccines. They are hard to treat because they mutate. Vaccines are a diluted version of the virus.
PROTISTS
Protists are eukaryotic. In order for protists to live, they have to live somewhere wet and damp. All protists have nuclei and are separated into three different groups.
PLANT LIKE PROTISTS
All plant like protists are autotrophs, have chlorophyll, and cell walls. There are two major groups: unicellular algae and multicellular algae.
UNICELLULAR ALGAE
Unicellular algae is important because they start every aquatic food chain. However, overpopulation can cause toxins to be made which is harmful to humans, and can overcrowsd space.
MULTICELLULAR ALGAE
Multicellular algae do not have tissue, and is a food source for humans and fish.
An example of a plant like protist is a euglena.
ANIMAL LIKE PROTISTS
Animal like protists are alll heterotrophs, and are classified by the way they move.
SARCODINES
Sarcodines have pseudopods. Pseudopods are like small feet. An example of a sarcodine is an amoeba.
Picture of an amoeba that was taken in class with the use of a microscope.
CLILATES
Ciliates move with cila, which are hair-like and can cover a cell. An example of a cilate is a pramecium.
Picture of a paramecium that was taken in class with the use of a microscope.The nucleus is very noticeable.
FLAGELLATE
Flagellates move with a flagella and they all have flagellum. An example of a flagellate is a euglena.
Picture of a euglena that was taken in class witht he help of a mictoscope.
SPOROZOAN
Sporozoans reproduce asexually by spores. They do not move and often depend on their host's body to move around.
Picture of a sporozoan
FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
Some characterists of fungi are: eukaryotic cells, (must) have cell walls, heterotrophic, be multicellular and do not contain chlorophyll.
CELL WALLS
Fungi cell walls are made up of a sugar that is named chitin.
Some fungi have cross walls which are also known as septa. Some cells lack septa and have multiple nuclei (multinucleated).
Fungi have the ability to ingest/absorb food through their cell walls. They are absorptive feeders.
REPRODUCTION
Fungi reproduce asexually and sexually.
Asexual reproduction includes the breaking up of hypha (fragmentation), and the pinching off of a small hypha outgrowth (budding).
CLASSIFICATION
Most fungi are classified by their shape.
FOOD MOLDS (PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA)
Bread mold is an example of a food mold.
EDIBLE MOLDS (PHYLUM BASICIOMYCOTA)
Reproductive structure are called gills.
Gils on the underside of a mushroom.
Example: mushrooms, puffballs.
FUNGNI (PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA)
This is the largest group of fungi
Example: Cup fungi, yeast
Cup fungi
IMPERFECT FUNGI (PHYLUM DEUTEROMYCOTA)
Example: Athlete's foot, ringworm, penicillum
Picture of penicillum
GENETICS
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
DNA
I learned what DNA was made up of
I learned that adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine.
MITOSIS
I learned that mitosis was the process of cells dividing
MEIOSIS
I learned that meiosis I and meiosis II are very similar to mitosis.
I also learned that meiosis II is very similar to mitosis, making it difficult to spot the difference when looking at either one.
I learned that meiosis is the process of sexual reproduction
PUNNETT SQUARES
I learned how to make a punnett square
I learned that punnett squares are just prediction.
KARYOTYPES
I learned about the diseases that were chromosomal, and the diseases that weren't. For example, before studying this unit, I did not know that Down Syndrome was chromosomal.
I learned how to make a karyotype and how to examine them.
Completing karyotypes helped me understand how genetic disease are diagnosed before or after a child is born.
MITOSIS
VOCABULARY I'VE LEARNED
ZYGOT- A fertilized egg.
DIPLOID - A cell or nucleus with two sets of chromosomes-one set from each parent.
TETRAD - Two chromosomes or four chromatids
ALLELE - Discrete version of the same gene.
GENOTYPE - The genes of an organism for one specific trait
PHENOTYPE - The physical apperance of a trait in an organism/chracteristics
DNA
THE STORY OF DNA
Watson and Crick were two scientists who were seen as lazy jokers. There were three teams of scientists who were eager to discover the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin, Watson and Crick, and Franklin and Pauling. Watson and Crick were so eager to find the model and prove that they were right that they once presented a DNA model that was inaccurate. Rosalind Franklin was the scientist that was ahead of all and purposefully made Watson and Crick present the DNA model. Rosalind Franklin found the correct model, but Watson and Crick took all the credit. Before Rosalind could call the two scientists out and state that she was the one who actually discovered the model, she died of cancer.
Watson and Crick
Rosalind Franklin
Amobea sisters video that we watched in class when we started to learn about genetics.
DNA STRUCTURE
DNA has instructions for making protein in the body. The DNA model is shaped at a double helix. The double helix is made up of sugars and phosphate containing bases. There are four phosphate containing bases in DNA. They are cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine. The four bases are either purines or pyrimidines.
PURINES
Purines are larger and have a double ring structure. Adenine and guanine are purines.
PRYIMADINES
Pyrimidines are small and have a single ring structure. Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines.
Within DNA, two bases make up a rung. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine.
Flat model of DNA
3D model of DNA
This video was completed in class and shows the process of mitosis in a stop motion video.
INTERPHASE
Interphase happens before mitosis begins. During interphase, chromosomes are copied and change to sister chromatids by the end of this phase.
Interphase
PROPHASE
Prophase is the first step of mitosis. In prophase, centrioles appear and start to move the opposite ends of the cell. Spindle fibers form and the nuclear membrane starts to break down.
Prophase
METAPHASE
Metaphase is the second step. The pairs of chromosomes attach to spindle fibers and line up in the middle of the cell, getting ready for separation.
Metaphase
ANAPHASE
In the third step of mitosis (anaphase), the chromatids separate and start to move to opposite ends of the cell.
Anaphase
TELOPHASE
Telophase is the fourth step in mitosis. In this stage, two neuclei form and mitosis ends.
Telophase
CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis. The cell membrane move inwards and makes two daughter cells. Each daughter cell has a nucleus and identical chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
MEIOSIS I
Meiosis video
INTERPHASE
Interphase occurs before meiosis begins. The same things that happen in interphase of mitosis happen in meiosis. Chromosomes replicate.
PROPHASE I
Prophase I is the first step of meiosis. Interphase I happens to be the longest and the most complex phase. Most of the meiotic process takes place here. Homologus chromosomes form a tetrad.
The chromosomes also "cross over." While the chromosomes are crossing over, chromatids break and reattach to another chromatid. The chromatids cross over to avoid making clones.
Chromosomes crossing over
After chromosomes cross over (late prophase)
METAPHASE I
Metaphase I is the shortest phase in meiosis I. Tetrads line up on the metaphase plate.
Metaphase I
ANAPHASE I
Homologus chromosomes seperate but the sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
Anaphase I
TELOPHASE I
Each pole has a haploid set of chromosomes. After telophase I, cytokinesis begins.
Telophase I
MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE II
Prophase II is the same as prophase in mitosis.
METAPHASE II
Metaphase II is the same as metaphase in mitosis
ANAPHASE II
Apart from the sister chromatids splitting, anaphase II is the same as anaphase in mitosis. In mitosis, the sister chromatids are identical. In meiosis, the sister chromatids are not identicle.
TELOPHASE II
In telophase II, nuclei form and cytokinesis takes place afterwards.
Telophase I and telophase II
NON-DISJUNCTION
Non-disjunction is when chromosomes do not split properly. Non-disjunction results in zygotes having an abnormal chromosome number. An abnormal amount of chromosomes can damage the offspring.
COMMON NON-DISJUNTION DISORDERS
Some common non-disjunction disorders are Edward's Syndrome, Down Syndrome, Turner's Syndrome, and Kleinfelter's Syndrome.
KARYOTYPES
Karyotyping helps geneticists identify any genetic disorder that someone may have. Karyotypes also help identify genders. Human's have 46 chromosomes. Karyotypes allow any geneticist to look at the chromosomes visually.
In class, to practice identifying chromosomal disorders and get familiar with karyotypes, we went to: http://www.biology.arizona.edu/human_bio/activities/karyotyping/karyotyping.html
When examining chromosomes, there are dark rings around the chormomsome.
To identify genetic diseases, you have to count how many chromosomes there are. If there are more than 46 chromosomes, and less, there is an abnormality. The type of abnormality depends on what chromosome is affected.
This karyotype is showing the karyotype of a female who has down syndrome. If you do not know the name of the abnormality, you'd first say trisomy, and then the chromosome that has the abnormality
The dark bands around the chromosomes are caused richness in adenine and thymine.
IDENTIFYING GENDER
If the patient has two large chromosomes, the patient is female (XX).
If the patient has one large and one small chromosome, the patient is male (XY).
ABMORMALITIES
DOWN SYNDROME
With down syndrome, chromosome 23 is affected. There are 47 chromosomes instead of 46 and the person may have heart defects, and specific/distinct characteristics.
EDWARD'S SYNDROME
Chromosome 18 is effected. There are 47 chromosomes and those who suffer from Edward's Syndrome often die early in infancy.
PATAU SYNDROME
Chromosome 13 is affected. 47 chromsomes, abnormal brain function that is severe, and those who have Patau Syndrome generally die in early infancy as well.
TRIPLE X SYNDROME
There are 47 chromosomes. The female chromosome is the chromosome that is affected.
PUNNETT SQUARES
Punnett square were first used by Gregor Mendel. He first noticed that his pea plants were either purple or white, which caused him to research and look into the reason why.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE.
When it is incomplete dominance, both of the letters have to be the same.
For example, if pink was a dominant trait, it would be P. If blue was recessive, it would be p. If you were to put the two together, it would be Pp.
Incomplete dominance square
CODOMINANCE
With codominance, both traits are shown equally with no sense of blending. The traits are represented by two different capital letters.
For example, if having normal cells was represented by NN and having sickle cells was SS, it would be NS.
Codominance square
MULTIPLE ALLELES
There are more than two alleles for a gene. For example, blood types consist of a dominant trait, and a recessive trait.
Blood types-who can receive from who and who can donate
Punett square showing the predictions of blood type
SEX LINKED TRAITS
In sex linked traits, the gene is only attached to the X chromosome. Sex linked disorders are more common in males than females.
Females must inherit the disorder from both parents.
In males, there is no other X chromosome to "mask" a recessive gene.
PEDIGREE CHARTS
Symbols
Introduction video to predigrees
Roman numerals are used to represent generations. The numerals go on the side.
Pedigree charts are used to figure out who are carriers of disease within a certain family tree.
The basic shapes within a predigree chart
MARRIED COUPLE/PARENTS
Married couples are attached with a horizontal line.
CHILDREN
Attached to parents with a vertical line. Children are normally put in an order from eldest child, to youngest.
Example
Fraternal twins are connected together from the beginning, like an upside down cone.
Example
Identical twins are connected together to make a triangle
When a person is a carrier of a disorder or a disease, they are fully shaded in
A circle with a dot is an X linked carrier
When someone is a sutosomal carrier, they are half shaded in
If someone is deceased, they have a line across them.
Example of a pedigree chart