chapter3. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Defintions

observations

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ttthey are our perceptions of reality. they are experiential in nature.

by which we recognize

by note facts

facts

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those thngins or phenomena that we believe are tru. facts are generally consensual in nature, in that others who have observed the same phenomena agree to their existence

Direct observation or sensing of natural phenomena or of experienmetal result

Direct infereence from other data that are directly oberved

original documents

reports and publications of fact-gathering agencies and researchers

questioning of inidividuals

Concepts

the basic building blocks of scientific investigation

abstract ideas generalized from particular facts

constructs

High levels of abstraction

invvented for some speical theoretical purpose

not directly tied to observation

Definitions

Constitutive

Operational

Variables

simply a symbol

assume any one of a set of values

Problem

questions raised that are in need of a solution in a business setting

infinite

Hypotheses

conjectural statements

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conjectural statments of the the relationship between two or more varibales that carry clear implications for testing the stated relation

tentative statements

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are considered to be plausibele given the available information

Laws

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a law can be defined as a well-verified statment of relationship about an invaribale association amonyg variables

Models

as any highly formailzed representation of a theoretical network, usually designed through the use of symbols or other such physical analogs

used as representations of theoretical systems so that they can be tested, examined, and generally analyzed by those who create them

simplified versions of phenomena that are of interest to the scientist.

General model

effort=expectancy* instrumentality*Valence

Theories

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can be defined as interrelated set of statements of relationship whose purpose is to explain and predictthe establishment of theories is a primary goal of science because they are the means by which we explain and predict phenomena of interest

more effectively bring to bear our repertoire of habits

the device for interpreting, criticizing and unifying established law

modify them to fit data unanticipated in their formulation

guiding the enterprise of discovering new and more powerful generalizations

Expectancy theory

expectancy

the perceived likelihood that an action will lead to successful performance

instrumentality

the perceived likelihood that a successful performance will lead to desired outcomes

Valence

the value that a person places on the outcome

Effort

the amount of work expended to achieve a specific task

a good example in use

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expectancyworkingharder --------------->increase productivityinstrumentality valence---------------->incentive bonus------------------>desirability of incentive bonus

Methods of theory construction

Model-based Theory

any highly formalized representation of a theoretical network

use of symbols or other such physical analogs

emphasis up front is on defining a conceptual network

inductive theory

Definition

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inductive theory building is characterized by a strictly empirical approach to finding generalizations

Funtional theory

Definition

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functional theories are those whose developemtn is characterized by a continual interaction of conceptualizing and subsequent empirical testing

difference between deductive and functional theeories

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is the degree to which conceptualization takes place ini the early stages of the theory's development.

Deductive Theory

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deductive theories are developed largely through the process of deduction

form of inferece that derives its conclusions by reasoning through premises which serve as its proof

a widely used form of inferential logic

one whose emphiasis is distinctly on the conceptual structure and its substantive validity

Relevance of science in business research

to build the case for the need for research in the decisionmaking process

to outline the basic terminology in the field of science

Science versus nonscience

scientific method

critical and analytical in nature

logical

objective

conceptual and theoretical in nature

empirical

systematic

State of the art in business research

categorized as applied social science research in most classificatory schemes

compared to the natural sciences

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such as physics and chemistry

the changes in the business research industry

the research function will become increasingly woven into the fabric of the organization

the field will function more and more in real time

New research techniques promise to make research settings more realistic and ultimately improve the quality of the research

Shared information and technology will lead to better theoretical networks

Levels of scientific endeavor

description is the simple identification of the major variables and their relationships in a problem situation

prediction is achieved when the researcher can identify a variable or set of variables that is associated with the presences of some other variable

explanation is achieved when the research can answer why a certain phenomenon or relationship exists in reality

control exists when the researcher is able to manipulate on or more variable in problem situation so as the effect the desired change in one or more variables associated with the situation