作者：Tyler Heng 1 年以前
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Telophase
Nuclear envelope reforms, chromosomes decondense, and spindle fibers disassemble.
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers.
Metaphase
Chromosomes align at the cell's equator, spindle fibers attach to kinetochores.
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and become visible, nuclear envelope breaks down.
More Growth of cell and cell synthesizing of proteins for cell division
End of G2 completions
Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
Nucleus with envelope seen
Each centrosome contains 2 centrioles
Two centrosomes formed by duplication
DNA Synthesis and DNA Replication occur resulting in duplication of chromosomes
Growth of Cell and acquires materials for DNA synthesis
subunits break apart
empty tRNA in P site is moved to E site to be released
mRNA with tRNAs bring the next codon to be translated into the A site.
removal of polypedtide from P site to attach to A site.
initiator tRNA in the P site.
A site available for tRNA with the next amino acid.
alive mouse
dead mouse
Lagging Strands go opposite of the leading strand
Also reffered to as Okazaki Fragments
Once synthesized, DNA polymerase I removes the RNA primer and replaces with DNA
Ligase binds the DNA together, completing the process
Leading strands go towards the replication fork, synthesizing 3' to 5'
permease: allow the bacterial cell to take up sugar like lactose
beta-galactosidase: hydrolyzes lactose to produce galactose and glucose; glucose is preferred by bacteria cell
transacetylase: transfers an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to beta-galactosides
The operon comprises an operator (the on/off switch) followed by a cluster of functionally related genes.
When glucose is available in the bacterial cell, the operon will be off in which the repressor will bind to the operator. However, when the glucose is used completely, the operon turns on and the repressor will unbind and instead bind to allolactose. Beta-galactosidase, permease, and transacetylase will be translated from the mRNA to catabolize lactose, to make more glucose.
off and then on
cAMP
CAP
promoter
allolactose
operator
off
albumin gene not expressed due to repressor binding enhancer
albumin gene expressed due to activators
occurs in the event of 1 to 2 insertions or deletions of 1-2 nucleotides
signal peptidase
Once the the signal peptide is cleaved, the polypeptide is released from the bound ribosome and folds into final conformation
Amylase- a digestive enzyme found in lysosomes
insulin- a peptide hormone
casein- a milk protein
albumin- a serum protein
collagen- an extracellular matrix protein (gives plasma membrane increase tensile strength)
two turns of the Calvin cycle are required to produce glucose
ribulose bisphosphate
The hydrogen ions want to go with its chemical gradient in which ATP synthase allows for passage to the stroma, which has a low hydrogen ion concentration. ATP is produced when hydrogen ions pass through ATP synthase.
produced from exercise and metabolism
makes ATP
protein complexes
Matrix of mitochondrion
produces 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 after both acetyl CoA molecules enter and complete the cycle
Electron carrier NAD+ is reduced from the electrons from Pyruvate to produce NADH. A carbon is released from Pyruvate and produces carbon dioxide and a CoA molecule is joined with the remaining two carbons of Pyruvate
Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle
2 NADH produced
Glucose
Glucose 6-phosphate
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
In target cells that receives the signal molecule.
Ligand gated ion channel receptor acts as a gate for ions to pass and change shape.
when phosphate groups are added to tyrosines
When each polypeptide on dimerization functions as a kinase so it takes phosphate groups from ATP and adds it to the other polypeptides.
enzymes that catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to proteins
the polypeptides dimerize when a signal molecule is bound to them.
can add phosphate groups to something
Dimer
when a signal molecule binds it activating monomers to allow them to come together forming a dimer.
Interacting proteins
the activated tyrosine kinase receptor can now interact with other proteins for responses from the cells.
present on the plasma membrane
needs help of the other molecules inside cells
They are small, nonprotein, water soluble molecules/ions that are used in signal transduction to relay a signal within a cell.
Synthesized from ATP using enzyme Adenylyl Cyclase
carbon monoxide
nitric oxide
Ca^2+
cGMP
cyclic AMP
Adenylyl Cyclase
converts the ATP to cAMP
Gene expression
mRNA are converted into proteins
can turn off some genes
Protein synthesis
Changes the activity of metabolic enzyme and open/close of ion channels
Signal molecule is hydrophilic
G protein coupled receptor
Guanosine diphosphate, GDP, inactive form.
Guanosine triphosphate, GTP, active form
Binds GPCR
The single molecule binds to GPCR during reception
converting to GTP
G protein binds to the GPCR converting the GDP to GTP on the G protein
Activation of G protein
Happens when GTP binding
activate enzyme
the G protein can activate the enzyme
present in the cytoplasm, in the nucleus
The signal molecule can bind if nonpolar or hydrophobic so it can pass the lipid bilayer and bind a receptor once inside the cell.
2. activation
The hormone binds to the receptor protein and activates it.
3. binds to specific genes
The hormone enters the nucleus and binds to specific genes.
4. protein acts as transcription factor
stimulating the transcription of the gene into mRNA
5. mRNA translated into protein
Cell Wall
Plasmodesmata
ECM
Cell junctions
Tight
Gap Junction
Desmosomes
Microfilaments
Actin
myosin
Intermidate Filaments
Microtubules
Tubulin
Chromatin
Nucleolus
Vacuoles
Central
Contractile
Food
ADP
ATP
Hydrogen pump
Vesicles
Rough Er
Smooth ER
Prokaryotes are split into Domain Archaea and Domain Bacterial
Archaea that lives in highly saline environments
Archaea that thrives in very hot environments
Methanogens are Prokaryotic domain archaea cells that live in swamps and marshes to produce methane as a waste product.
requires o2 for cell respiration
uses O2 when present, uses fermentation when O2 is not present.
use of fermentation anaerobic respiration
helps with attachment
DNA location
protein synthesis takes place
Plasma membrane
membrane that enclosing the cytoplasm
cell wall
structure outside the plasma membrane
Glycocalyx
outer coating consists of a capsule of a slime layer
Flagella
movement structure
Heterotrophs get carbon from organic compounds
Chemotrophs get their energy from organic chemicals.
Autotrophs use inorganic carbon sources
phototrophs obtain energy from the light
Chemotrophs get their energy from inorganic chemicals.
Endospores serve a purpose for survival under harsh environmental conditions.
helps resists against phagocytosis and adherence to surfaces
cell wall filled with peptidoglycan. Helps bacteria with support, protects the cell, and maintains the shape.
bacteria mating
Periplasmic space contains hydrolytic enzymes and binding proteins for nutrient processing/ uptake.
Buoyancy of floating in aquatic environements
DNA that is separate from the main bacterial chromosome
DNA location
Ion dipole
Dipole-dipole
Hydrophiobic interactions
London dispersion
