LIFE

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

ZOOLOGY

BOTONY

MICROBIOLOGY

THE STUDY OF LIFE

ALLOWS FOR A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF DIVERSITY

Comparison of similarities and differences between organisms.

An important step towards understanding life on Earth

Humans thrive on order, classification gives us the order we crave

Biologists use classification to make sense of the living world around us

DEFINED AS THE STUDY OF GROUPING AND NAMING THINGS

DIVIDING LIFE INTO A SERIES OF MANAGEABLE GROUPS

TAXONOMISTS SPEND COUNTLESS HOURS LOOKING FOR THE SMALL/MINUTE DETAILS THAT SEPARATE ORGANISMS FROM ONE ANOTHER

A WAY TO REPRESENT EVERY KNOWN SPECIES AND ANY OTHER SPECIES YET TO BE DISCOVERED

COMPARISON OF TWO ANIMALS SUCH AS THE ELEPHANT AND THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. THE ELEPHANT IS A TERRESTRIAL ANIMAL WHERE THE HIPPOPOTAMUS IS A SEMI-AQUATIC-ANIMAL. THE CATERGORY FOR THE OBSERVATION WOULD BE HABITAT

ANIMALS MAY HAVE SHARED ATTRIBUTES. AN EXAMPLE: WHERE THEY LIVE

ANOTHER ATTRIBUTE WOULD BE MORPHOLOGY WHICH IS TTHE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF A LIVING THING

A FURTHER ATTRIBUTE WOULD BE NICHE FEEDING STRATEGIES DESCRIBING THE ROLW AND POSITION THAT A SPECIES HAS IN ITS ENVIRONMENT

GIVING EACH SPECIES A UNIQUE TWO WORD LATIN NAME

UNICELLULAR (1 CELL)

MULTICELLULAR (MULTIPLE CELLS)

CELL TO TISSUE TO ORGAN TO ORGAN SYSTEM

MAINTAINING A REGULATED BALANCE

Example: Enzymes need a certain pH range

Balancing the Acidic and Alkaline levels

Maintaining a certain temperature

Maintaining a certain percentage of water concentration

Having a feedback system in place to maintain homeostasis

To capture energy and to use energy for processes (including some that use Homeostasis)

Chemical reactions that are happening in organisms are past metabolism

Example: Plants are AUTOTROPHS that can capture light energy to make Glucose (PHOTOSYNTHESIS)

Breaks down Glucose in Cellular Respiration to make ATB energy.

Autotroph: An organism capable of synthesizing its own nutrients from inorganic substances.

Example: Animals are HETEROTROPHS that need to eat, then digest in order to obtain Glucose.

Also breaks down Glucose in Cellular Respiration to make ATB energy.

Heterotroph: An organism unable to manufacture its own food.

UNICELLULAR BACTERIA

CAN COPY DNA AND SPLIT INTO TWO ORGANISMS

MULTICELLULAR BACTERIA

SPERM AND EGG CELLS UNITING TO MAKE A FERTILIZED EGG (A ZYGOTE)

LIVING ORGANISMS HAVE GENETIC MATERIAL TO CODE FOR DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH

GENETIC MATERIAL CONTAINS INSTRUCTIONS FOR THIS DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH

OFTEN CONSIDERED A CHARACTERISTIC OF LIFE

Example: Hunger alerts many body systems for the need to eat

Example: The body alerts you to any approaching danger or hazards.

PLANTS RESPONDING TO LIGHT IS A RESPONSE TO A STIMULUS

A self-sustaining system capable of Darwinian Evolution

A characteristic of life that appears over time

The gene frequencies in a population of living organisms can change over time due to mechanisms. Example: Natural Selection

Some genes can code for traits that result in high reproductive fitness

Over time these traits can result in adaptations

Some genes may code for traits that code for low reproductive fitness and may be selected against

Over time these traits can result in adaptations

USING THE CRAPP TEST TO EVALUATE THE RELIABILITY OF ONLINE SCIENTIFIC DATA AND SOURCES

CURRENCY

RELEVANCE

AUTHORITY

ACCURACY

PURPOSE

MANY HYBRID ANIMALS DO EXIST

AN EXAMPLE OF A HYBRID ANIMAL THAT EXISTS IS THE LIGER (MALE LION + FEMALE TIGER)

ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF A HYBRID ANIMAL IS THE TIGON (MALE TIGER AND FEMALE LION)

Biology ensures a classification system to include the information we already know and a way to ensure that new information can be incorporated.

ABOUT 18,000 NEW SPECIES ARE DISCOVERED EACH YEAR. WE ALSO LOSE QUITE A FEW SPECIES EACH YEAR AS WELL

Some animals that are the same species may be called a different name based on the geographic area that they are from. An example is the Mountain Lion/Cougar/Puma.

CARL LINNEAUS WAS A SWEDISH BOTONIST, PHYSICIAN AND ZOOLOGIST

CREATED A SYSTEM BASED ON THE ORGANISM ITSELF

THIS SYSTEM USES MORPHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES AND IS REFERRED TO AS LINNEAN BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE MEANS A TWO TERM NAMING SYSTEM

EACH LEVEL OF THE HIERACHY IS CALLED A TAXON

SPECIES

GENUS

FAMILY

ORDER

CLASS

PHYLUM

KINGDOM

DOMAIN

BIOLOGISTS USE EIGHT DIFFERENT TAXA TO DESCRIBE ALL LIVING THINGS

THE MOST GENERAL TAXONOMIC RANK OF ORGANISMS IN THE TREET DOMAIN SYSTEM OF TAXONOMY

HAS NO MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES, NO NUCLEUS, DOES NOT INCLUDE DNA

THERMOPHILES - LIKE EXTREME TEMPERATURES

HALOPHILES - WANT AN EXTREME SALT TEMPERATURE

METHANOGENS - WANT AN ENVIRONMENT WHERE THERE IS VERY LITTLE OXYGEN

PROKARYOTES

NO MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES

NO NUCLEUS

DNA

EUKARYOTES

MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES

NUCLEUS

DNA (IN NUCLEUS)

MONERA

PROTISTA

FUNGIS

PLANTAE

ANIMALIA

EUBACTERIA

ARCHAE

Formerly known as Archaebacteria but this term is often argued to be outdated due to recent DNA and structure evidence

Protista

Is extremely diverse. There are protists that are animal-like and plant-like and also fungi-like.

Includes Autotroph Protists and Heterotroph Protists

Most are UNICELULAR but they can be MULTICELLULAR

Some have cell walls made of Cellulose and some have no cell wall

FUNGI

They are HETEROTROPHS

Are mostly multicellular, but they can be unicellular

Most have cell walls or Chitin

Mushrooms

Smuts

Puffballs

Truffles

Molds

Yeasts

Plantae

They are AUTOTROPHS - even carnivorous plants as they still receive their glucose from sunlight energy

For the most part are multicellular

Have cell walls made of cellulose

Animalia

Heterotroph

Most are multicellular

The most current taxonomic hierarchy uses the six kingdom system developed in the 1990s

BI - REPRESENTING TWO

NOMIAL - REPRESENTING NAME

NOMENCLATURE - SYSTEM OF NAMING

EXAMPLE: HYDRA VULGARIS

HYDRA = GENUS

VULGARIS = SPECIFIC EPITHEY (REFERS TO ONE SPECIES IN THE GENUS)

TAXONOMIC LEVELS OR RANKS ARE BASED ON SHARED CHARACTERISTICS

THE MORE LEVELS THAT THE TWO ORGANISMS SHARE, THE MORE CLOSELY RELATED THEY ARE

THERE IS A TWO PART NAME FOR EVERY SPECIES

Categorized over 7700 PLANTS and 4400 ANIMALS

THE EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT OR HISTORY OF A SPECIES

A phylogenetic tree showing how a common order leads to a number of different species.

A phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between the six kingdoms and a common ancestor.

Subphylum, superorder, and subfamily are some examples that are often used to aid classification

CO2 is one of the main components needed to sustain plant life on Earth

CO2 is the raw material needed by green plants to produce glucose and oxygen through the process of Photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water.

Forests act as Earth's filters to help reduce the Greenhouse Effect by reducing Carbon Dioxide from the atmosphere

Greenhouse Effect: The trapping of the sun's warmth in Earth's lower atmosphere due to Greenhouse Gases such as Carbon Dioxide

The energy stored in the sugar molecules is the foundation of all food webs and oxygen is made by many organisms to breathe and convert sugars to useful energy.

A system of interlocking and interdependent food chains.

OPINIONS BY SKEPTICS

Some assert rising CO levels benefit plants, so global warming is not as bad as scientists proclaim

“A higher concentration of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere would aid photosynthesis, which in turn contributes to increased plant growth,”

“This correlates to a greater volume of food production and
better quality food.”

“If you isolate a leaf [in a laboratory] and you increase the
level of CO , photosynthesis will increase.

For most of the other plants humans eat—including wheat,
rice and soybeans—“having higher CO will help them directly,”

Doubling CO from pre-industrial levels, she adds, does boost the productivity of crops like wheat by some
11.5 percent and of those such as corn by around 8.4 percent.

“the bottom line is, we know that rising CO reduces the concentration of critical nutrients around the world,” adding that these kinds of nutritional deficiencies are
already significant public health threats, and will only worsen as CO levels go up. “The problem with [the skeptics’] argument is that it’s as if you can cherry-pick the CO fertilization effect from the overall effect of adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere,”

OPINIONS BY BELIEVERS

The potentially most harmful outcome of rising atmospheric CO on vegetation: climate change
itself

Negative consequences such as drought and heat stress would likely overwhelm
any direct benefits that rising CO might offer plant life.

“The more CO you have, the less and less benefit you get.”

And while rising carbon dioxide might seem like a boon for agriculture, Moore also emphasizes any potential positive effects cannot be considered in isolation, and will likely be outweighed by many drawbacks. “

“Even with the benefit of CO fertilization, when you start getting up to 1 to 2 degrees of warming, you
see negative effects,”

There are a lot of different pathways by which temperature
can negatively affect crop yield: soil moisture deficit [or] heat directly damaging the plants and interfering with their reproductive process.”

Increased CO
also benefits weeds that compete with farm plants.

Rising CO ’s effect on crops could also harm human health. “We know unequivocally that
when you grow food at elevated CO levels in fields, it becomes less nutritious,”

Atmospheric CO levels predicted for mid-century—around 550 parts per million—could make food crops lose enough of those key nutrients to cause a protein deficiency in an estimated 150 million people and a zinc deficit in an additional 150 million to 200 million.

A total of 1.4 billion women of child-bearing age and young children who live in countries with a high prevalence of anemia would lose more than 3.8 percent of their dietary
iron at such CO levels

OPINIONS BY SKEPTICS

The climate change lobby is keen to ensure that if you
hear about it at all, you hear that it is a minor thing, dwarfed by the dangers of global warming.

OPINIONS BY BELIEVERS

A lecture given by Ranga Myneni of Boston University in which he presented an ingenious analysis of data from satellites. This proved that much of the vegetated area of the
planet was getting greener, and only a little bit was getting browner.

PROVIDES OXYGEN FOR THE NEED TO BREATHE

PROVIDES FOOD FOR THE NEED TO EAT

THE SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS THE CHLOROPLASTS

LOCATION WHERE THE LIGHT REACTION WILL TAKE PLACE

A STACK OF THYLAKOIDS IS CALLED A GRANUM

FILLED WITH AQUEOUS FLUID

THE SITE OF THE CALVIN CYCLE

If you grind up a leaf into some Chromatography Paper, there are a number of pigments that are working together

Chlorophyll A and Chlorophyll B absorb a lot of Blue and Red light, but they do not absorb GREEN.

CHLOROPHYLL REFLECTS THE GREEN LIGHT

A plant is taking WATER in through it's ROOTS and CARBON DIOXIDE through it's LEAVES + LIGHT = TURNING INTO GLUCOSE (the food) AND OXYGEN (the oxygen to breathe)

The plants create GLUCOSE (sugar) so they can break it down using CELLULAR RESPIRATION as well as the structure (cellulose, and cell wall)

PHOTO - meaning light reaction (LIGHT)

SYNTHESIS - meaning Calvin Cycle (TO MAKE)

WATER and LIGHT enter the MEMBRANCE and produce OXYGEN (a waste product) and NADPH and ADP are produced which is the ENERGY

ENERGY then TRANSFERS to the CALVIN CYCLE where CARBON DIOXIDE comes IN and GLUCOSE comes OUT

ATP AND NADPH are providing ENERGY to The Calvin Cycle

AN ENZYME known as RuBisCo will attach RUBP (5 CARBON MOLECULES) to CARBON DIOXIDE (1 CARBON MOLECULE) which immediately BREAKS into 3 CARBON MOLECULES and gets energy from ATM AND NADPH and forms the chemical G3P (Becoming GLUCOSE by SYNTHESIZING)

Taking Carbon and FIXING IT (making it usable)

Some of the G3P is released, but some is RECYCLED AGAIN to make more of the G3P

Without ATP or NADPH or CARBON, the process would SHUT DOWN.

WATER will be SPLIT right AWAY and the OXYGEN DIFFUSES OUT OF THE CELL (into the atmosphere as the Oxygen we breathe)

PROTONS remain (Hydrogen IONS, which are Atoms that have lost their ELECTRONS).

As the ELECTRON moves through the Electron Transport Channel) POWERED BY LIGHT. Every time it goes through a PROTEIN, it is pumping PROTONS to the INSIDE

PROTONS have a POSITIVE CHARGE so you are BUILDING UP A POSITIVE CHARGE ON THE INSIDE

The PROTONS MOVE OUT through a PROTEIN called ATP SYNTHASE . Every time a PROTON GOES OUT we make another ATP

They are now sitting in the STROMA and ready to move on to the CALVIN CYCLE.

In the THYLAKOID MEMBRANE - LIGHT comes IN, WATER comes IN

PHOTOSYSTEM II > PROTEINS with CHLOROPHYLL on the INSIDE of it

LIGHT is used to POWER THE MOVEMENT of AN ELECTRON through an Electron Transport Channel.

ELECTRONS will travel through PROTEINS, CARRIER PROTEINS and eventually go to NADPH (one of the products of the LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION

STROMA - THE OUTSIDE

LUMEN - THE INSIDE

OCCURS ONLY WHEN WE DON'T HAVE ENOUGH CARBON DIOXIDE.

OXYGEN CAN JUMP IN THE CALVIN CYCLE USING RuBisCo CAN FORM ANOTHER CHEMICAL > WHICH DOES NOT DO ANYTHING

RESULTING IN A REDUCTION OF C3 PLANTS

PHOTORESPIRATION IS BAD

There is no benefit and the plants will LOSE based on OXYGEN entering The Calvin Cycle

Example: A plant has a STOMATA and when a plant OPENS UP the CARBON DIOXIDE diffuses in. If a plant was CLOSED, it would NOT RECEIVE CARBON DIOXIDE.

PLANTS CLOSE when it is REALLY HOT, TO PREVENT FROM LOSING WATER (as through TRANSPIRATION you are constantly LOSING WATER).

OPEN UP STOMATA > You can LOSE WATER and shrivel up.

Example: CAM PLANTS (like a Jade or Pineapple)

SOLUTION: They only open up their Stomata at NIGHT

At NIGHT the CARBON DIOXIDE will come IN and CREATE MALIC ACID out of it, and STORE IT in the VACUOLES INSIDE THE CELL

During DAYTIME they can CLOSE the STOMATA to AVOID LOSING WATER and take that CARBON DIOXIDE out of the MALIC ACID and use it in THE CALVIN CYCLE

Example: C4 PLANTS (like Corn)

SOLUTION: Take the CARBON DIOXIDE in and use ENZYEMES to MAKE A 4 CARBON MOLECULE out of it.

Will move to cells inside the leaf called THE BUNDLE SHEATH CELLS and then introduce CARBON DIOXIDE using THE CALVIN CYCLE.

CLOSE UP STOMATA > You can't get CARBON DIOXIDE in resulting in PHOTORESPIRATION

PLANTS ARE EXTREMELY IMPORTANT TO LIFE AS WE KNOW IT

FORM THE FOUNDATION OF ALL THE TERRESTRIAL FOOD WEBS ON EARTH

WHEREVER YOU FIND PLANTS, YOU ARE SURE TO FIND ANIMALS AND OTHER LIFE FORMS

CROPS GENERATE BILLIONS OF DOLLARS FOR THE CANADIAN ECONOMY

EXAMPLES: CORN, WHEAT, CANOLA AND POTATOES

PLANTS ARE USED TO PRODUCE CLOTHING, MEDICINES, AND BUILDING MATERIALS

BENEFIT OUR ENVIRONMENT BY REMOVING CO2 FROM THE ATMOSPHERE AND REPLACING IT WITH OXYGEN

Oxygen is then used by the vast majority of organisms to release the energy stored in sugars

Plants have EVOLVED in order to SURVIVE different ENVIRONMENTS

MONOCOTS

Have PETALS in MULIPLES of THREE (Ex. LILY)

Have PARALLEL VEINS

FIBROUS SPREADING ROOTS

STEM has VASCULAR BUNDLES SPREAD ALL AROUND

COTYLEDON = ONE COTYLEDON IN THE SEED

23% OF ALL FLOWERING PLANTS ARE MONOCOTS

LONG NARROW LEAF

Examples: GRASSES, ONION, CORN, WHEAT, RICE

DICOTS

Have PETALS in MULTIPLES of FOUR or FIVE

Are NET VEINED

SINGLE THICK ROOT with LATERAL BRANCHES (Ex. TAPROOT)

STEM has VASCULAR BUNDLES AT THE EDGES

COTYLEDON = TWO COTYLEDONS IN THE SEED

75% OF ALL FLOWERING PLANTS ARE DICOTS

BROAD LEAF

Examples: POTATOES, BEANS, PEAS, APPLE TREES

Based on the number of COTYLEDON the flowering plant possesses. Cotyledon is defined as: An embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants. These are the FIRST LEAVES to appear FROM a GERMINATED SEED

There is about 250 THOUSAND SPECIES of FLOWERING PLANTS in the WORLD

ABOUT 2% OF ALL FLOWERING PLANTS DO NOT FIT THE CLASSIFICATION OF EITHER MONOCOTS OR DICOTS

THE PROGRESSION OF CELL ORGANIZATION

CELLS>TISSUES>ORGAN>ORGAN SYSTEMS>ORGANISM

Most vascular plants are COMPOSED OF TWO MAIN ORGAN SYSTEMS

SHOOT SYSTEM

Comprised of the ORGANS FOUND ABOVE THE GROUND

Includes: STEMS, LEAVES, FRUIT AND FLOWERS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND WATER

REPRODUCTION

STORAGE

ROOT SYSTEM

Comprised of what is BELOW THE GROUND including ALL ROOT MATERIAL

ANCHORAGE

ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINERALS

TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND WATER

REPRODUCTION

DERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM

PROTECTION

PREVENTION OF WATER LOSS

EPIDERMIS

PERIDERM (in older stems and roots)

GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

FOOD STORAGE

REGENERATION

SUPPORT

PROTECTION

PARENCHYMA TISSUE

COLLENCHYMA TISSUE

SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE

VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM

TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS

TRANSPORT OF FOOD

XYLEM TISSUE

PHLOEM TISSUE

MERISTEMATIC TISSUES

TIRELESS

FEARLESS

EVER GROWING

MOST ACTIVE

FOUND IN THE REGION WHERE THE PLANTS ACTIVE GROW

CONSIST OF SMALL DENSLEY PACKED THIN WALLS CELLS THAT KEEP DIVIDING TO PRODUCE NEW CELLS

HAVE A HUGE NUCLEUS

LACK ONE MAJOR ORGANELLE

THE CENTRAL VACUOLE

MERISTEMATIC DOES NOT REQUIRE STORAGE OF WATER OR SUPPORT

RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH

GROWTH CAN BE WITHER VERTICAL OR HORIZONTAL

Usually present in the TIPS OF THE SHOOTS

Usually present in the ROOTS

Responsible for UNILATERAL GROUP (which is growth in one direction) which makes the plant SHOOT UP or SHOOT DOWN

Found in THE STEM or THE ROOTS

This VERTICAL GROWTH is also called PRIMARY GROWTH

Since the Root Meristem goes into the soil and gets DIRTY, it has a PROTECTION for ITSELF called the ROOT CAP

ARE UNDIFFERENTIATED

Meaning a huge urge to CONTINUOUSLY DIVIDE

As this divide continues, some of them become SPECIALIZED

Some then Differentiate into PRIMARY MERISTEMS which can then differentiate into SECONDARY MERISTEMS

Cells will DIVIDE and then BECOME SPECIFIC for a PARTICULAR FUNCTION

Defined As: The process of taking up a permanent SHAPE, SIZE AND FUNCTION.

INCREASES THE LENGTH of the PLANT

Accounts for SECONDARY GROWTH in Plants

SECONDARY GROWTH IS HORIZONTAL GROWTH

Example: The growth of a tree trunk in Girth

INCREASES THE WIDTH of the PLANT

Found at the BASE of the leaves or the internodes of the twigs

Example: Bamboo Plant

Allow for RAPID STEM ELONGATION

Have very SMALL OR NO VALUOLE AT ALL

As the cells MATURE, the VACUOLE GROWS TO DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZE depending on the NEED OF THE CELL

THE VACUOLE MAY FILL 95% OR MORE OF THE CELL'S TOTAL VOLUME

PARENCHYMA

Made up of Paenchyma cells

The MOST ABUNDENT cell type

They get PACKED up nicely side by side

Flatten at the point of CONTACT

The VACUOLES are LARGE and CONTAIN SOME SECRETIONS (Starch, oils etc.)

ADD CHLOROPLAST

CARRY OUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS

RESULTS IN CHLORENCHYMA

NO CHLOROPLAST

WILL NOT CARRY OUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS

WILL STORE FOOD AND WATER INSTEAD

NO PUSH

When the cells are LOOSELY PACKED TOGETHER WITH AIR SPACES

RESULTS IN AERENCHYMA

Example: In Water Lilies - helps them to float on water and gives the SUBMERGED PART of the Plant ACCESS TO AIR

Found in MOST of THE EDIBLE FRUIT ex. APPLES

COLLENCHYMA

Made up of COLLENCHYMA Cells

Have THICKER WALLS

UNEVEN WALLS that are PLIABLE and STRONG

PROVIDE FLEXIBILITY AND SUPPORT TO THE PLANT

Very LESS INTERCELLULAR SPACE

ARE LIVING CELLS

SCLERENCHYMA

MOSTLY DEAD AT MATURITY

Made up of SCLERENCHYMA Cells

Have THICK, TOUGH, SECONDARY WALLS EMBEDDED WITH THE SPECIAL HARDNESS providing LIGNEN

LIGNEN MAKES CELLS SUPER TOUGH

Example: THE HUSK OF A COCONUT

FOUND IN THE VEINS OF FLOWERS

FOUND IN THE HARD COVERING OF NUTS

A COMBINATION OF TWO OR MORE SIMPLE TISSUES

XYLEM

Derived from the GREEK WORD XYLON > Meaning WOOD

THE PLUMBING SYSTEM OF THE PLANT

CARRIES WATER AND OTHER DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES

PARENCHYMA CELLS

STORES FOOD AND HELPS IN SIDEWAYS CONDUCTION OF WATER

FIBRES

HELPS IN SUPPORT

TRACHEIDS

TRACHEARY ELEMENTS

LONG, TUBE-LIKE ELONGATED CELLS

RESPONSIBLE FOR TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS

Has a SMALLER DIAMETER than VESSELS

NO PERFORATIONS (VESSELS HAVE PERFORATIONS ALL OVER)

LESS EFFICIENT THAN VESSELS IN TRANSPORTING WATER

SHORTER IN LENGTH (VESSELS ARE LONGER)

FOUND IN ALL VASCULAR PLANTS

Ex: Plants with DUCTS OR TUBES for TRANSPORTATION

VESSELS

COMPOSED of a THICK BUNDLE OF PIPES RUNNING DOWN the MAIN ACCESS OF STEMS AND ROOTS

CAN ONLY TRANSPORT WATER UPWARD AND OCCASSIONALLY SIDEWAYS

PHLOEM

Derived from the GREEK WORD BARK

CARRIES DISSOLVED FOOD PARTICLES THROUGHOUT THE PLANT

PART OF THE PLUMBING SYSTEM OF THE PLANT

PART OF THE "KITCHEN" OF THE PLANT (in the LEAVES

APPEARANCE

SIEVE ELEMENTS

TRANSPORT MAINLY HAPPENS THROUGH THE SIEVE TUBES

LACK A NUCLEUS AND RELY ON COMPANION CELLS FOR MATURITY

FOUND IN ANGIOSPERMS AND GYMNOSPERMS

PHLOEM FIBRES

COMPANION CELLS

PHLOEN PARENCHYMA

USED FOR FOOD STORAGE

ALL THE ELEMENTS (EXCEPT THE FIBRES) ARE ALIVE

CAN TRANSPORT WATER UP AND DOWN

EPIDERMAL CELLS

CAN BE ONE TO MULTI-CELL LAYERS THICK

THIS IS TO AVOID LOSS OF WATER IN HOT WEATHER CONDITIONS (Multi-cell Layers) and ABSORBING AS MUCH WATER AS POSSIBLE (Like a Sponge)

CUTIN is a FATTY SUBSTANCE SECRETED by MOST EPIDERMAL CELLS FORMS A WAXY, PROTECTIVE LAYER CALLED THE CUTICLE

LOSS OF WATER = THICKNESS OF CUTICLE LAYERS

CUTICLE PROVIDES RESISTANCE TO BACTERIA AND OTHER DISEASE CAUSING ORGANISMS

WAX PALM HAS COMMERCIAL VALUE (Ex. SHOE POLISH)

Important for INCREASING THE AREA IN ROOT HAIRS

TO INCREASE ABSORPTION

IN LEAVES THE SMALL PORES CALLED STOMATA ARE GUARDED BY SPECIALIZED EPIDERMAL CELLS CALLED GUARD CELLS

UNIQUE CELLS OF A DIFFERENT SHAPE THAT CONTAIN CHLOROPLATS NEEDING FOR EXCHANGING GASES WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

Photosynthesis is a process where one form of gas is magically converted to another form

The tissues involved include cells of SPECIFIC STRUCTURE and SHAPE

THIS STRUCTURE ALLOWS THE PROCESS TO WORK SO EFFICIENTLY

Within each leaf, you will find VARIOUS LAYERS OF GROUND TISSUE SPECIALIZED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The arrangement of these layers ensures that all the reactants are where they need to be

The MAIN LOCATION of the gas exchange is IN THE LEAVES of the VASCULAR PLANT

UPPER EPIDERMIS

Upper Epidermis - Single layer of tightly packed cells with a thin waxy coating called a cuticle. The cuticle prevents water loss and creates a physical barrier to protect against insects and microorganisms. These cells do not contain chloroplasts, so the layer is transparent and allows light to pass through.

LOWER EPIDERMIS

Lower Epidermis - Single layer of tightly packed cells with a thin waxy coating called a cuticle. The cuticle prevents water loss and creates a physical barrier to protect against insects and microorganisms. This layer contains pores that allow CO2 to enter the leaf and O2 to exit.

PALISADE MESOPHYLL

Palisade Mesophyll - Elongated and closely packed cells that contain many chloroplasts. This is where the majority of photosynthesis occurs, as it has access to the light.

SPONGY MESOPHYLL

Spongy Mesophyll - Loosely packed cells with a large amount of airspace surrounding them. This airspace allows for gas exchange to occur between the mesophyll cells and the atmosphere through the pores.

VEIN

Vein - A bundle of vascular tissue that transports water and nutrients to and from the leaf.

STOMA

Stoma - plural is stomata. A small opening or pore that allows gas exchange.

THE MAJORITY of stomata are located on the LOWER EPIDERMIS OF THE LEAF where they are PROTECTED from the SUN

AS A RESULT > LESS WATER EVAPORATION will occur through these shaded openings

CO2 DIFFUSES INTO THE LEAF THROUGH THE STOMATA

FOR A STOMATA TO CLOSE, WATER NEEDS TO BE LOST FROM THE GUARD CELLS

WATER WILL MOVE FROM A HIGH TO LOW CONCENTRATION BY OSMOSIS

AFTER WATER HAS LEFT THE GUARD CELLS, THE GUARD CELLS WILL THEN BECOME FLACCID.

WHEN THE GUARD CELLS BECOME FLACCID > THE STOMATA IS IN A CLOSED POSITION

GUARD CELLS

Guard Cells - Two kidney shaped cells that control the opening and closing of the stomata.

IF THE GUARD CELLS ARE FILLED WITH WATER, THAT MEANS THE GUARD CELLS ARE TURGID AND THE STOMATA IS NOW OPEN.

WATER ENTERS AND EXITS THE GUARD CELLS BY OSMOSIS

The cells of the upper and lower EPIDERMIS (the OUTER CELL LAYER of the PLANT, it protects WATER LOSS and PROTECTS THE INNER TISSUES) are tightly packed to provide protection to the delicate tissues underneath

The PALISADE MESOPHYLL is composed of cells that are tightly packed and elongated in order to capture as much energy from the Sun as possible. These cells contain a high number of CHLOROPLASTS (Chlorophyll containing organelle found in PHOTOSYNTHETIC PLANTS & ANIMALS).

The cells of the SPONGY MESOPHYLL are loosely packed to allow air to circulate around them to facilitate gas exchange. The term mesophyll simply means inner or middle tissue.

VEINS are the bundles of vascular tissue that allow the transport of water and dissolved nutrients throughout the plant

STOMA are pores that allow gas exchange between the atmosphere and the inner tissues of the leaf

GUARD CELLS control the opening of the pores

AQUATIC PLANTS have special modifications that enable them to live in aquatic environments.

AQUATIC PLANTS have most of their stoma on the upper surface of the leaves to allow gas exchange with the environment

AQUATIC PLANTS have a modified tissue called aerenchyma, which is loosely packed parenchyma cells found in leaves, stems, and other structures. It allows the plants to float on water.

PLANTS MAKE THEIR OWN FOOD THROUGH PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The PARTS OF A PLANT work like a FACTORY to GET ALL THE PARTS INTO ONE PLACE so PHOTOSYNTHESIS CAN TAKE PLACE

SUNLIGHT

THE TOP OF THE LEAF IS EXPOSED TO THE MOST LIGHT, SO THE SPECIALIZED CELLS FOR TRAPPING LIGHT ARE LOCATED AT THE TOP

The calls are called PALISADE MESOPHYLL

THESE CELLS ARE PACKED FULL OF CHLOROPHYLL

Most leaves have a LARGE SURFACE AREA to TRAP AS MUCH SUNLIGHT AS POSSIBLE

CARBON DIOXIDE

THE BOTTOM OF THE LEAF HAS LITTLE PORES CALLED STOMATA WHICH OPEN UP SO CARBON DIOXIDE CAN DIFFUSE INTO THE LEAF. (Controlled by the Guard cells that open up to allow Carbon Dioxide in, and close to prevent water from escaping).

THE CARBON DIOXIDE ENTERS THROUGH THE SPONGY MESOPHYLL (at the bottom of the leaf) and heads up to the PALISADE LAYER for PHOTOSYNTHESIS

AS LEAVES ARE THIN, THE CARBON DIOXIDE DOES NOT HAVE FAR TO TRAVEL

WATER

WATER COMES UP THROUGH THE ROOTS AND STEM AND ENTERS THE LEAF THROUGH A VASCULAR BUNDLE

THE VASCULAR BUNDLE CONTAINES A HOLLOW TUBE FOR WATER TRANSPORT CALLED THE XYLEM - THE VASCULAR BUNDLE SPREADS OUT TO FORM VEINS

Above the PALISADE MESOPHYLL and Below the SPONGY MESOPHYLL, are EPIDERMIS CELLS that produce a WAXY COATING called the CUTICLE.

THIS CUTICLE SEALS UP THE LEAF SO THEY ONLY WAY IN AND OUT IS THROUGH THE STOMATA. (Regulated through the Guard Cells)

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

COVERS and PROTECTS the INTERNAL and EXTERNAL SURFACES OF THE ANIMAL BODY

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS

Located in the LINING of the ALVEIOLI - allows transport of SMALL MOLECULES ACROSS THE MEMBRANE

IT IS EXTREMELY THIN, FLAT, AND SINGLE LAYERED

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS

PROTECTS AREAS SUBJECT TO ABRASION AND IS FOUND IN THE SKIN

IT IS MULTILAYERED

COLUMNAR

ACTS AS AN IMPERMEABLE BARRIER AGAINST ANY BACTERIA AND IS PERMEABLE TO ANY UNNECESSARY IONS.

IT IS TALL AND SHAPED LIKE A COLUMN

CUBOIDAL

AIDS IN ABSORPTION AND PROVIDES MEHANICAL SUPPORT

FORMS THE LINING OF KIDNEY TUBULES AND IS SHAPED LIKE A CUBE

NERVOUS TISSUE

CONSISTS OF A NERVE CELL OR NEURON THAT HAS A CELL BODY CONTAINING A NUCLEUS

EXTENDS AND FORMS SPECIALIZED CELL PARTS known as DENDRITES AND AXONS

This is NERVE CELLS that help you to RETRACT YOUR HAND WHEN YOU TOUCH A THORN

NERVE CELLS CARRY MESSAGES

THE DENDRITES BRING SIGNALS TO THE CELL BODY and THE AXON TRANSMITS THE INFORMATION TO THE DENDRITE of ANOTHER CELL

THE NERVE IMPULSES ALLOW US TO MOVE OUR HAND WHEN WE WANT TO

THE BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, AND NERVES ARE ALL COMPOSED OF NERVOUS TISSUE

MUSCLE TISSUE

IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE MOVEMENT IN OUR BODY

SKELETAL

HELPS IN LOCOMOTION AND OTHER VOLUNTARY BODY MOVEMENTS

IT IS MADE OF LONG FIBRES with ALTERNATE LIGHT AND DARK BANDS or STRIATIONS, SO SKELETAL MUSCLES are also called STRIATED MUSCLES

SMOOTH

PROVIDES INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS SUCH AS THE CONTRACTION OF WALLS

THEY LINE THE WALLS OF THE HOLLOW STRUCTURES OF THE BODY

SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS ARE FOUND IN THE INTESTINES and BLOOD VESSELS

THEY ARE SPINDLE-SHAPED, FLAT, POINTED AT BOTH THE ENDS AND BROAD AT THE MIDDLE

CARDIAC

THE CARDIAC OR HEART MUSCLES ARE INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE CELLS THAT CONTRACT AND RELAX THROUGHOUT LIFE

THEY ARE CYLINDRICAL, BRANCHED AND UNI-NUCLEATED

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

BLOOD

CONTAINS RBC, WBC AND PLATELETS THAT TRANSPORT GASES AND OTHER MATERIALS TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY

BLOOD HAS A FLUID MATRIX

BONE

THE BONE CELLS SECRETE CALCIUM THAT HARDENS THE BONE AND SUPPORTS THE MAIN ORGANS OF THE BODY

BONE CELLS ARE SOLID

LIGAMENT

LIGAMENTS FUNCTION AS A CONNECTION BETWEEN BONES.

THEY ARE FIBROUS AND STRETCHY

CARTILAGE

PROTECTS BONES BY PREVENTING THEM FROM RUBBING AGAINST EACH OTHER

TOUGH, BUT FLEXIBLE TISSUE

AREOLAR

FILLS THE SPACE INSIDE THE ORGANS

GEL-LIKE WITH BOTH ELASTIC AND NON-ELASTIC FIBRES

ADIPOSE TISSUE

STORE FAT MOLECULES

ALMOST ALL ANIMALS ARE MADE UP OF TISSUES

TISSUES are GROUPS of CELLS that are SIMILAR IN STRUCTURE and WORK TOGETHER TO ACHIEVE A PARTICULAR FUNCTION

ALL LIVING CELLS NEED ENERGY TO FUNCTION, AND OXYGEN IS VITAL IN A CELL'S ABILITY TO RELEASE ENERGY FROM FOOD

The process of PRODUCING CELLULAR ENERGY FROM GLUCOSE INVOLVING OXYGEN.

Energy is released when glucose molecules react with oxygen to form CO2 and water.

The energy that is released is stored in molecules called adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which CAN THEN BE USED BY CELLS for their ENERGY-REQUIRING PROCESSES such as GROWTH and MOVEMENT

C6H12O + 6O2 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

GLUCOSE + OXYGEN > CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER + ENERGY

REACTANTS (INPUTS) ARE ON THE LEFT SIDE AND PRODUCTS (OUTPUTS) ARE ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE EQUATION

A TYPE OF NUCLEIC ACID

ACTION PACKED WITH THREE PHOSPHATES

WHEN THE CHEMICAL BOND THAT HOLDS THAT THIRD PHOSPHATE IS BROKEN, IT RELEASES A GREAT DEAL OF ENERGY AND IS THEN CONVERTED TO ADP (D = TWO)

In EUKARYOTE CELLS (membrane-bound organelles such as Mitochondria)

3 MAJOR STEPS

GLYCOLISIS

TAKES PLACE IN THE CYTOPLASM

DOES NOT REQUIRE OXYGEN

GLUCOSE IS CONVERTED INTO A MORE USABLE FORM CALLED PYRUVATE

REQUIRES A LITTLE ATP ENERGY TO GET STARTED

THE NET YIELD IS APPROX. 2 ATP MOLECULES AND 2 NADH MOLECULES

NADH IS A COENZYME THAT HAS THE ABILITY TO TRANSFER ELECTRONS

CREBS CYCLE

ALSO KNOWN AS THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE

WE ARE INVOLVED IN THE MITOCHONDIRA

THIS STEP REQUIRES OXYGEN

THE PYRUVATE THAT WAS MADE IS NOW CONVERTED AND WILL BE OXIDIZED

CARBON DIOXIDE IS PRODUCED

WE PRODUCE 2 ATP, 6 NADH, AND 2 FADH

FADH IS ALSO A COENZYME AND IT WILL ALSO ASSIST IN TRANSFERRING ELECTRONS TO MAKE EVEN MORE ATP

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

WE ARE IN THE MITOCHONDRIA

WE DO REQUIRE OXYGEN FOR THIS STEP

A VERY COMPLICATED PROCESS

ELECTRONS ARE TRANSFERRED FROM THE NADH AND THE FADH TO SEVERAL ELECTRON CARRIERS

USED TO CREATE A PROTON GRADIENT

THE PROTONS ARE USED TO POWER THE ENZYME CALLED ATP SYNTHASE

THIS ENZYME TAKES PHOSPHATES AND ADDS THEM TO ADP WHICH MAKES ATP

OXYGEN IS THE FINAL ACCEPTOR OF THESE ELECTRONS

THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN PRODUCES A LOT OF ATP COMPARED TO THE OTHER TWO STEPS

POLAR BEAR

MAMMAL

ALL MAMMALS HAVE LUNGS IN ORDER TO EXCHANGE GASES BETWEEN THE BLOOD AND THE ATMOSPHERE

The BIGGER the SURFACE AREA the FASTER THE DIFFUSION OF GASES CAN OCCUR

SHARK

FISH

FISH HAVE INTERNAL GILLS TO GET OXYGEN OUT OF THE WATER AS THEY SWIM ALONG

MEXICAN SALIMANDER

HAVE THEIR GILLS ON THE OUTSIDE

LOCUST

INSECT

USES A SYSTEM OF TUBES FOR EXCHANGING GASES

POISON FROG

AMPHIBIAN

HAS LUNGS BUT CAN GET OXYGEN THROUGH THEIR MOIST PERMEABLE SKIN AS WELL

HUMAN

THE TOTAL SURFACE AREA FOR A HUMAN SET OF LUNGS

IS ABOUT 75 METRES SQUARED

AS BIG AS A BADMINTON COURT AND ALL PACKED WITHIN YOUR CHEST

Gas exchange in larger animals such as humans occurs in TWO LOCATIONS

VENTILATION brings O2 into the lungs where the gas exchange occurs between the ALVEOLI and THE BLOODSTREAM

The O2 DIFFUSES from THE BLOODSTREAM INTO THE CELLS

Is the PROCESS USED TO DRAW THE AIR INTO THE BODY

This process requires a SERIES OF STRUCTURES to DIRECT THE OXYGEN containing air TO THE LOCATION OF THE AIR EXCHANGE

Starting from the mouth and nose

The air moves down through the trachea or windpipe, and into the branches of the right and left bronchi

The Bronchi then DIVIDE into smaller branches called bronchioles, which TERMINATE at the ALVEOLI

Through these alveoli that THE FIRST STAGE of the gas exchange occurs.

The alveoli have thin walls that are surrounded by tiny blood vessels

The air is in very close proximity to the vessels, allowing diffusion between the small air sacs and the blood to occur

Once the oxygen IS IN the blood vessels, it still needs to get to the cells where it is needed for cellular respiration

IS CONNECTIVE TISSUE

CONNECTS ALL THE SYSTEMS IN THE BODY TOGETHER BY BRINGING THE NEEDED OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS TO THE CELLS

Now that the OXYGEN has DIFFUSED into the bloodstream, it will associate with the RED BLOOD CELLS and be carried throughout the body

A minute VESSEL whos walls act as a SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANE FOR GAS AND MATERIAL EXCHANGE

EACH CELL IS NEVER TOO FAR IN LOCATION FROM A BLOOD CAPILLARY

This allows the O2 from the red blood cells to diffuse across the semipermeable membrane of the vessels, through the cell membrane, and into the cell

The specialized tissues and structures mentioned above allow gas exchange to be internalized within more complex animals such as HUMANS.

INTERNALIZING THE EXCHANGE ALLOWS ANIMALS TO GROW MUCH LARGER as they DO NOT NEED TO DEPEND ON DIFFISION ON THE SURFACE OF THE BODY

They ALL HAVE A GOOD BLOOD SUPPLY

THE GOAL IS TO GET OXYGEN INTO THE BLOOD AND CARBON DIOXIDE OUT AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE

THE BLOOD TRAVELS VERY CLOSE TO THE EXCHANGE SURFACE TO MAXIMIZE FUSION

THE BLOOD NEEDS TO BE TAKEN AWAY FROM THE EXCHANGE AREA QUICKLY SO THAT YOU MAINTAIN THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT BETWEEN THE TWO AREAS

DIFFUSION HAPPENS QUICKLY WHEN THERE IS LOTS OF GAS IN ONE PLACE AND NOT VERY MUCH IN THE OTHER

THIS IS CALLED THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT

BEING MOIST HELPS DISSOLVE THE GASES AND SPEED UP THE EXCHANGE

DIFFUSION IS THE MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES OR PARTICLES ALONG A CONCENTRATION GRADIENT. THIS PROCESS DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY

It also allows for the waste gas CO2 to be removed from the body.

Diffusion is used to move particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

In less complex organisms, such as sponges, the oxygen can diffuse directly from the surroundings into the cells.

EXAMPLE: The Green Sponge

IS A BRANCH OF SCIENCE THAT STUDIES THE FLOW OF LIQUIDS AND GASES IN AN ORGANISM

MOVEMENT OF WATER AND MINERALS

MOVEMENT OF AMINO ACIDS

Dead cells make up an important part of the vascular tissue

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF XYLEM CELLS

VESSEL ELEMENTS

ONCE CELL TYPE FOUND IN THE WATER CONDUCTING TISSUE OF FLOWERING PLANTS

ONLY FOUND IN ANGIOSPERMS (FLOWERING PLANTS)

Vessel elements are PITTED on the sides, and this allows the xylem sap to move laterally to other elements

TRACHEIDS

A TYPE OF WATER CONDUCTING CELL FOUND IN THE XYLEM TISSUE OF PLANTS THAT DIES WHEN IT REACHES MATURITY

TRANSPIRATION IS THE EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM THE AERIAL PARTS OF THE PLANT (THE LEAVES AND THE STEMS)

A SUCTION PRESSURE IS CREATED

DRAWS UP THE WATER THROUGH THE PLANT

RESULTING IN THE TRANSPIRATION PULL

THE TRANSPIRATION RATE IS NOT CONSTANT - MANY ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECT IT

TEMPERATURE

WIND

HUMIDITY

LIGHT INTENSITY

PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE TRANSPIRATION RATE

DOES IT HAVE A WAXY CUTICLE

HOW MANY STOMATA DOES IT HAVE

THE NATURE OF THE GUARD CELLS

HOW LARGE IS THE LEAF SURFACE AREA

IF THE LEAF IS FOLDED OR FLAT

IF THE TRANSPIRATION RATE INCREASES, THEN THE WATER ABSORPTION BY THE ROOT ALSO INCREASES

ROOTS HAVE ROOT HAIRS GIVING THEM A LARGE SURFACE AREA FOR WATER ABSORPTION

WATER PASSES IN FROM THE SOIL BY OSMOSIS

PASSING DOWN THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT

INTO THE ROOT HAIR CELL'S CYTOPLASM

THEN MOVING ONTO THE XYLEM VESSELS