The Arts of Living Things

The biological species concept defines
"species" as a population of individuals
that are able to freely breed under
natural conditions.

Ways to consider biodiversity:
-Genetic diversity
-Species
-Structural diversity

Ways to classify species:
-Morphology
-Behaviour
-Geographic location

Loss of biodiversity means:
-threatened food supply
-eliminates sources of natural medecine
-economic impact on tourism & forestry-cause disruption in biogeochemical cycles.

Binomial Nomenclature:
*Two name system (genus-species)*

Traditional Taxonomic ranks:
-Domain
-Kingdom
-Phylum
-Class
-Order
-Family
-Genus
-Species

All living things are descended
from a common ancestor.

6 Kingdoms of Life:
Eubacteria/Archae/Protists/
Fungi/Plants/Animals

Eukaryotes:
any organism whose cells contain organelles; multicellular.

Prokaryotes:
a single-celled organism that does not contain membrane bound organelles.

They can be identified by cell shape, cell wall and movement.

Reproduce asexually by Binary Fission
Reproduce sexually by Conjugation

-Bacteria have cilia, flagellum to help them move.

-Gram negative (purple)
-Gram positive (pink)

Eubacteria & Archae are difficult to distinguish because of small size and lack of internal structure.

Viruses are non-living

Two ways for a virus to reproduce: lytic cycle & lysogenic cycle.

Protists are the most diverse group!

Were the first eukaryotes (endosymbiotic/ folding/ mitochondria & chroloplast).

Binary-fission (asexual)
Conjugation (sexual)

Can be:
Animal-like (amoeba)
Plant-like (algae)
Fungus-like (slime moulds)

Fungi have cell walls made of chitin, majority multicellular (yeast-unicellular), bodies are mesh-like (composed of mycelium), not photosynthetic.

-Major decomposers
-Plants rely on fungi for nutrients
-Responsible for cycling through biosphere

Asexual repro. by dispersing spores

Plants evolved from green algae (charophytes),
multicellular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic, most terrestrial, cell wall made of cellulose etc.

4 main groups:
-Bryophytes
-Pteridophytes
-Gymnosperms
-Angiosperms

Animals could be vertebrates or invertebrates.

-Radial (jellyfish, starfish)
-Bilateral (human)

Most animals are protostomes.

"Cells" divide for growth, development, repair and the formation of gametes.

Genetic information is stored in DNA molecules within the chromosome cells.

-Somatic cells are any cell in the body except sperm &
egg cells.
- 46 chromosomes -----> 2 sets of 23 chromosomes (diploid)

-Sex cells are the egg & sperm cells.
-23 chromosomes -----> 1 set of 23 chromosomes (haploid)

Asexual reproduction=identical offspring from single parent (mitosis)
Sexual reproduction=genetically variable offspring (meiosis)

Mitosis has 3 phases:
1)Interphase
2)Mitosis
3)Cytokinesis

Mitosis: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis

Asexual reproduction: binary fission, budding, fragmentation

Cloning is the process of forming identical offspring from a single cell or tissue.

In meiosis- produce four genetically different, haploid(n) reproductive cells.

Two cell divisions; eight steps; reduce # of chromosomes by half; in testes-spermatogenesis/ in ovaries-oogenesis

Meiosis I, involves synapsis, crossing over, formation of tetrads

Metaphase I, homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate.

Anaphase I, sister chromatids do NOT separate.

-Female-sex chromosomes are homologous (XX)
-Male-sex chromosomes are non-homologous (XY)

Karyotypes are used to view abnormalities (stain, viewed & photographs under a microscope)

Abnormalities could either be monosomy or trisomy non-disjunction.

A monohybrid punnet square codes for one trait.

Dominant alleles may prevent the expression of recessive alleles.

-Homozygous dominant: TT
-Homozygous recessive: tt
-Heterozygous: Tt

Dihybrid crosses are crosses between individuals who differ in two pairs of alleles (usually 9:3:3:1)

Incomplete dominance is a blending of traits.

Codominance occurs when both alleles are fully expressed.

Type O blood is the universal donor.

Type AB blood is the universal recipient

Pedigree charts are used to study the transmission of a hereditary condition.

-Affected female (colored circle)
-Affected male (colored square)

Sex linkage is the passing of traits found on the X chromosome.

**Y chromosome carries no information**

Hemophilia is a recessive X-linked trait.

DNA molecule:
-Double helix
-Twisted ladder

-Thymine(T) & Adenine(A) are complementary bases.
-Guanine(G) & Cytosine(C) are complementary bases.

Nutrients are the chemicals that an organism needs in order to grow, build an and repair tissues and to produce energy.

Nutrients:

Metabolic rate depends on:

-Body size
-Sex
-Physical Activity
-Age
-Hereditary factors

Carbohydrates

Main source of energy

Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

Proteins

Building blocks of body

Composed of many amino acids

Lipids

Concentrated source of energy

Help in the absorption of vitamins

Water

The body is made of 55% to 60%

Need to digest food/ get rid of waste products/ chemical reactions

Vitamins

Regulates cell function, growth & development within our bodies

Water or fat soluble

Minerals

Build & repair tissues

Critical in the formation of bone

Digestion in the body

Ingestion takes you to:

Digestion:
-Physical and chemical (amylase)
-Bolus forms and goes down the esophagus (peristalsis)
-Stomach churns and mixes food particles with gastric juice(mucus found in gastric juice for protection)
-Liver produces bile, but gallbladder stores it (pancreas releases hormones and enzymes that'll help the breakdown of proteins)

Absorption:
-Small intestine is where most digestion happens (villi found)
-Large intestine is where the undigested particles are found

Egestion:
-Anus is where the stool is released

Respiratory System

Structure of the lungs:

Thin permeable respiratory membrane through which diffusion can occur

**Pneumothorax causes the lungs to collapse**
----->Difficulty breathing

A large surface area for gas exchange

**Gas exchange happens in the alveoli**

A good supply of blood

A breathing system for bringing-rich air to the respiratory membrane

**Mechanism of ventilation**
----> Exhalation & Inhalation

Tidal volume

Total lung capacity

Inspiratory reserve volume

Expiratory reserve volume

Residual volume

Vital capacity

Circulatory system

Main function:

Transports oxygen to the cells from the lung

Transports carbon dioxide from cells to the lung

Transports essential nutrients to the cells

Carries wastes from cells

Composition of blood:

Blood plasma:
-antibodies/proteins
-nutrients/wastes

Red blood cells:
-carry oxygen
-contain hemoglobin

White blood cells:
-Attack bacteria & other invaders

Platelets:
-control blood clotting process

Types of blood vessels:

Arteries:
-carries blood away from the heart
-usually oxygenated

**Exception pulmonary artery**

-Vasodilation
-Vasoconstriction

Veins:
-carries blood towards the heart
- usually deoxygenated

**Exception pulmonary vein**

Capillaries:
-connect arteries/arterioles to vein/venules
-provides oxygen & nutrients to the cell

**The smallest vessel**

Blood pressure:

Systolic Pressure (heart contracts)

Diastolic Pressure (heart relaxes)

The mechanism that drives evolution is "Natural Selection"

Mutations create new genetic information and add genetic diversity.

Genetic diversity must be present for nature to
favor some individuals over others.

Mutations occur by:
-Substitution
-Insertion
-Deletion

Artificial selection is limited by genetic
variability within the breeding population.

Breeders can't create traits that do not already exist within the population.

Scientists came up with different beliefs...

Aristotle- living things are "Immutable"

Buffon- observed anatomical features (with no purpose).

Carl Linnaeus- classification system.

Erasmus Darwin- believed organisms change over time.

Chevalier de Lamarck- mechanisms of "Use & Disuse"/ "Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics"

Georges Cuvier- "Theory of Catastrophism"

Charles Lyell- "Theory of Uniformitarianism"

Charles Darwin- traveled to "Galapagos Island" & found a remarkable population of plants, birds and reptiles!

**Survival of the fittest**

Types of evidence:
-Biogeography
-Homologous & Analogous features
-Vestigial features
-Competition within populations

Types of natural selection...

Directional selection

Disruptive selection

Stabilizing selection

Sexual selection

What produces evolutionary changes
independently of natural selection?

Genetic drift

Bottlenecks

Founder effect

Types of evolution....

Adaptive radiation

Divergent evolution

Convergent evolution

Coevolution