Kategorier: Alle - tenses - habits - grammar - verbs

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Grammatical topics of B2 level of English

The provided resources cover a comprehensive range of English grammar topics suitable for B2 level learners. They include detailed explanations and examples of various grammatical elements such as the use of '

Grammatical topics of B2 level of English

Bibliography

British Counsil, 2023, Different uses of 'used to', https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar/b1-b2-grammar/different-uses-of-used-to Langeek, 2023, Prepositions of Time, https://langeek.co/en/grammar/course/68/prepositions-of-time British Counsil, 2023, Past habits: 'used to', 'would' and the past simple, https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar/b1-b2-grammar/past-habits-used-to-would-past-simple#:~:text=We%20can%20use%20would%20to,more%20formal%20than%20used%20to. Examenglish, 2023, B2 Grammar topics, https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/b2_grammar.html Test-english, 2023, Complete list of B2 grammar contents, https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b2/contents-b2/ Eltbase, 2023, Narrative tenses, https://www.eltbase.com/notes-201-narrative-tenses British Council, 2023, Phrasal verbs, https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar/b1-b2-grammar/phrasal-verbs Centralschool, 2023,‘Will’ and ‘Going To’ futures: For making predictions, https://centralschool.ie/english-grammar/will-and-going-to-predictions/

Grammatical topics of B2 level of English

In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, usually including word order.

Modals of deduction and speculation

The following modals can be used to guess what happened in the past.

can’t have + past participle verb couldn’t have + past participle verb

Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.

‘They can’t have got out under the gate. I fixed that yesterday.’
may not have + past participle verb might not have + past participle verb

Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.

‘He may not have got the message.’ / ‘He might not have received the message.’
may have + past participle verb might have + past participle verb could have + past participle verb

Use this when you make a guess about the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.

‘They may have got out under the gate, or they might have escaped through this hole in the fence.’
must have + past participle verb

Use this when you make a guess about the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.

‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’


‘They must have got out under the gate. There is no other way out.’

Modals – can’t have, needn’t have

Modal verbs are a type of verb that allows the speaker to express things such as advice, obligation, order, suggestions, capacity, request, permission, ability, and likelihood. Two important ones are “can’t have” and “needn’t have”

Needn’t Have

“Needn’t have” expresses when an action was done but was most likely a waste of time and unnecessary.

When using this modal verb, it follows the following formula:

For example:



We needn’t have studied so hard for the test. It ended up being canceled.
Can’t Have

This modal verb expresses something that you are very sure didn’t happen in the past or when you believe something was impossible in the past.

When using this modal verb, it follows the following formula:

For example:



Susie can’t have said that. She is too nice and wouldn’t say such mean things.

Mixed conditionals

mixed second / third conditional

This combination describes a situation which is never true, and the past consequence of this situation.

If + past simple, would have + verb (infinitive)

The presentation would have been more successful if you were better at speaking in public.
mixed third / second conditional

This combination describes an imagined event in the past and the present result.

If + past perfect, would + verb (infinitive)

He wouldn’t still be sick if he’d taken the medicine.
mixed first conditional sentences

First conditional sentences can use a variety of modal verbs.

First conditional sentences can also use going to, as well as will.

If + present simple, going to + verb (infinitive)

If you don’t get ready soon, we’re going to be late!

The present continuous and going to can also appear in the If clause

If you’re going to the shop, can you buy me some cola?

If you’re going to pay him, make sure you get a receipt.

The present perfect may also appear in the If clause.

If you’ve finished your work, you can go home.

If you give me some money, I can buy some milk.

If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?

If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.


Future perfect continuous

Use:


 

Joe won’t mind that we are late. He won’t have been waiting long.

“What do you think the men were doing in the store room?”

“Don’t worry. They will have been unpacking boxes.”    

By the end of this week, I’ll have been working here for five months.

Fixed future time:          the end of this week

Length of time:                five months

But this is not always the case.

Anne will be in a bad mood at the party this evening because she’ll have been doing housework.

Use the future perfect continuous to talk about an event that will be in progress for some time before a specified time in the future. Janet will be really tired when we get home. She will have been looking after the children all day!

Future perfect

Use:      

Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include:

By ..., This time next week..., In __ years’ time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple.

When you arrive, I’ll have prepared the dinner.

By the time I get home, my mum will probably have tidied the house.

Do you think Mel will have eaten all the chocolate cake?

No, she won’t have done that! 

Use the future perfect to talk about an event that will be finished and complete before a specified time in the future. This time next week, I’ll have finished this project.

Future continuous

Use:


Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include:

By ..., This time next week..., In __ years’ time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple.

When you arrive, I’ll be driving home.

By the time I get home, you’ll probably be having a bath.

b) The future continuous can be used instead of the present continuous for future plans.

Will you be going to Jane’s party?

Yes, but I’ll be getting there a bit late, because I’m going to a meeting after work.

c) We can also use the future continuous to make a guess about something that is in progress at the moment.

Don’t phone Richard now, he’ll be having dinner.

Oh no, I forgot about the dinner! It’ll be burning, I know it!

These sentences are not about the future but we can use the future continuous to talk about what we assume is happening at the moment.


Use the future continuous to talk about an event that will already be in progress at a specified time in the future. This time next week, I’ll be driving to my parents’ house.

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that can modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner give us more information about how the verb is done.


Adverbs of manner are usually placed:


  1. after the main verb and or its object or object phrase
  2. between the auxiliary and the main verb
  3. at the beginning or at the end of a sentence

She plays the piano beautifully.

He couldn't calmly open the safe.

She carefully opened the safe.

Cheetahs run fast.


Structure

Adverbs of manner can often be formed from adjectives by adding the suffix '-ly'. For example:


When forming adverbs, there can be some changes in the spelling. For example, when an adjective ends in -y we have to change the -y to '-i' and then add -ly:


If the adjective already has as -ly in the end, we use the phrase in a (...) way/manner to form an adverbial of manner. Pay attention to the examples:


He treats his relatives in a brotherly manner.

She behaved in a silly way last night.

He stared at his opponent in a deadly way.

Some adverbs of manner have the same form as their corresponding adjectives. These adverbs are called flat adverbsbare adverbs, or simple adverbs.


She worked hard on that project.

Can you stay late?

I arrived early.

Our son is growing up fast.

He kicked the ball high.




Adverbs of Frequency
Placement

Adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb.


I always travel with my friend.

If the main verb is 'to be', the adverb of frequency must be placed after it.


She is usually talkative and friendly.

If the sentence contains an auxiliary verbs like 'do' and 'have,' the adverb of frequency must be placed between the auxiliary and the main verb.


He has always been kind to me.

will never forget you.


Definite Adverbs of Frequency
  1. every day
  2. once a week
  3. twice a month
  4. three times a day
  5. every other day
  6. daily
  7. monthly
  8. weekly

Now pay attention to some examples:


You should water these plants every other day.

We meet monthly to discuss the project.

The meeting takes place once a week.


Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency

Indefinite adverbs of frequency describe the frequency of an action or event in a general, approximate way. They do not provide a specific percentage or number of occurrences, but rather give a sense of how often something happens. We have six main adverbs of frequency that are commonly used in English:


Adverbs of FrequencyPercent of Frequencyalways100%usually90%often70%sometimes50%rarely5%never0%

Other, less common adverbs of frequency are:

  1. normally → 80%
  2. generally → 80%
  3. frequently → 70%
  4. occasionally → 30%
  5. seldom → 10%
  6. hardly ever → 5%

sometimes have to stay up late.

I've never been to Paris.

rarely play any sports.


Adverbs of Time
Types

There are different types of adverbs of time. For example, we have adverbs of time that indicate:


I will finish my homework tonight.

She stayed for 4 hours.

I've already called her several times.



Order

Adverbs of time (also called temporal adverbs) modify a verb to tell us when and for how long an action takes place.

If you want to use more than one adverb of time in a sentence, follow this order:

How long?

How often?

When?

Py attention to the examples:

I studies abroad for two months (How long?) last year (When?).

She worked in a café for three days (How long?) every week (How often?) last month (When?).



I couldn't watch the series yesterday.

I'll have to watch it today.

The doctor will see you now.


Bake the cake for 45 minutes.

She hasn't been quite herself for a while.

They have lived in this mansion since the 1990s.


Common Adverbs of Time

The most common adverbs of time are those that indicate a specific moment in the pastpresent, or future. They include:


  1. past: yesterday, last year, just, before, previously, recently
  2. present: still, today, now
  3. future: tomorrow, soon, next week, later


Adverbs of Place
Uses

Adverbs of place are used to describe locationdirection, and distance.



Distance

For example:


She turned away and looked the other way.

He ran away from home.


Direction

Adverbs of place can be used to describe direction, indicating which way someone or something is moving or pointing. For example:


She waved as she drove past.

They always go abroad for their holidays.


Location

We can use adverbs of place to talk about the position of someone or something. For example:


My mother is cooking in the kitchen.

Let's go play outside.


Adverbs of Place as Prepositions

Many adverbs of place can also be used as prepositions. When used as prepositions, they must be followed by a noun. For example:


He put his hand into his pocket.

We walked slowly up the hill.


Placement

An adverb of place is usually placed after an intransitive main verb or after the object of a transitive verb. Usually, they appear at the end of a clause.


He walked towards me. (after the main verb)

Please put the book here. (after the object)


To be more formal you can use adverbs that end in '-ward' or '-wards' to emphasize the formal style.


I'm glad that they are homeward bound.

Please step forward.


Interrogative Adverbs of Place

Here is a list of the interrogative adverbs of place:



Comparative and Superlative Adverbs
Degrees of Comparison

Superlative Degree

For example:



One-syllable Adverbs

For example:



comparative degree

Using 'as … as'

For example:



Using 'than'

For eample:


He got a better score than me; he studied much harder than me.

Irregular Adverbs

Some adverbs have irregular comparative degree forms, which means their form completely changes when forming comparative adverbs. For example:




Two-syllable Adverbs

If the adverb has two or more syllables, the determiner 'more' is added before the adverb to make it comparative. For example:



One-syllable Adverbs

When the adverb has only one syllable, the suffix -er is added to make it comparative. For example:



positive degree

The positive degree is the base form of an adjective or adverb, which denotes a quality or action without making any comparison. For example:


Adverb Placement and Order

We can put adverbs at the front, in the middle, or at the end of a clause. Each can have its own function. We'll also learn about the orders of adverbs.


Adverbs: Order

This rule is called the order of adverbs or the royal order of adverbs and it is as follows:


  1. Adverbs of Manner
  2. Adverbs of Place
  3. Adverbs of Frequency
  4. Adverbs of Time
  5. Adverbs of Purpose


Adverb Placement: End Position

For example:


I have my first math class today.

Stop shouting now.

What are you doing here?

She visited him in hospital.

Just try and talk to her nicely.

Traffic flowed smoothly.


Adverb Placement: Middle Position

For example:



Adverbs of Time and Frequency

For example:



Conjunctive Adverbs

For example:



Adjectives

Adjective

Are words that modify nouns.




Adjective Clauses

Clauses are made of subjects and verbs that may need another clause to be completely meaningful. Adjective clauses function as the adjectives of sentences.

Proper Adjectives

Proper adjectives are commonly used in English. They tend to modify nouns and pronouns. in this lesson, we will learn more about them.

Compound Adjectives

Compound adjectives are used as one single adjective. They function as the head of the sentence. In this lesson, we will learn all about them.

Attributive and Predicative Adjectives

An attributive adjective is an adjective that appears before the noun or pronoun it describes. In this lesson, we will learn more about them.

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Comparative adjectives are used to compare one noun to another noun. Superlative adjectives are used to compare three or more nouns.

Descriptive Adjectives

Are adjectives that modify a noun or pronoun by showing its quality..


Narrative tenses

Narrative tenses are four tenses that we often use for talking about past events.


It is useful to look at these tenses together in the context of the function narrating - relating past events.

Narrative tenses are common in written stories, especially when they describe action

past perfect continuous
past perfect simple


Past perfect

The first three verbs - opened, looked and walked - are a sequence: they are written in the order that the actions took place. We know this because they are in the past simple. The past continuous verb, were blowing, shows an action in progress: the curtains started blowing before he walked into the room and continued to blow while he was there. The last verb, had left, shows an action that happened before he walked in. If we used the past simple for the last verb, the meaning would be different: The window was open, the curtains were blowing. Someone left in a hurry. This suggests that the person left after Bond walked in.
past continuous


Past continuous

past simple

Past simple

opened, looked, walked, was


Simple passive

The passive voice is used:

a) When the object of a sentence is more important than the subject

The city was destroyed by the volcano.

b) When the subject of the sentence is unknown.

This cheese was made in Canada.

 It is common in formal and scientific writing.

Past perfect

wish - Third Conditional

I wish:                                  I wish I had cleaned the house!

Third Conditional:           If I had practiced harder, we might have won the competition.

The past perfect is a narrative tense

This means it is used when telling a story about the past.

It is used in the same paragraph as verbs in the past simple tense, and is often used in the same sentence as a past simple verb.

The past perfect describes an event which happened before another event in the past. We use it when we do not want to say the events in the order they happened.

Example:

A sentence with the events in the order they happened:

John went to the shop on the way home from work, so he got home late.

Both verbs are in the past simple.

A sentence in which the events are NOT in order:

John got home late because he had gone to the shop on the way home from work.

The event which happened before the other verb is in the past perfect tense.


Past perfect continuous

The past perfect continuous is used when telling a story about the past. It is generally used alongside other narrative tenses such as the past simple.

The past perfect continuous describes an event which was in progress for a period of time before another event in the past. We use it when we do not want to say the events in the order they happened.

Write any adverbs between had and been

They had already been waiting for half an hour.

NOT in order

John went to the doctor because he had been having trouble sleeping.

in the order they happened

John was having trouble sleeping, so he went to the doctor late.


Phrasal verbs, extended

Phrasal verbs are very common in English, especially in more informal contexts. They are made up of a verb and a particle or, sometimes, two particles. The particle often changes the meaning of the verb.


I called Jen to see how she was. (call = to telephone)
They've called off the meeting. (call off = to cancel)

In terms of word order, there are two main types of phrasal verb: separable and inseparable. 

With two particles

Phrasal verbs with two particles are also inseparable. Even if you use a personal pronoun, you put it after the particles.


Who came up with that idea?
(come up with = think of an idea or plan)
Let's get rid of these old magazines to make more space.
(get rid of = remove or become free of something that you don't want)
I didn't really get on with my stepbrother when I was a teenager.
(get on with = like and be friendly towards someone)
Can you hear that noise all the time? I don't know how you put up with it.
(put up with = tolerate something difficult or annoying)
The concert's on Friday. I'm really looking forward to it.
(look forward to = be happy and excited about something that is going to happen)


Non-separable

Some phrasal verbs cannot be separated. 


Who looks after the baby when you're at work?

Even when there is a personal pronoun, the verb and particle remain together.


Who looks after her when you're at work?

Here are some common non-separable phrasal verbs:


came across your email when I was clearing my inbox.
(come across = to find something by chance)
The caterpillar turned into a beautiful butterfly.
(turn into = become)
It was quite a major operation. It took months to get over it and feel normal again.
(get over = recover from something)
We are aware of the problem and we are looking into it.
(look into = investigate)

Some multi-word verbs are inseparable simply because they don't take an object.


get up at 7 a.m.

Separable

With separable phrasal verbs, the verb and particle can be apart or together.


They've called the meeting off.
OR
They've called off the meeting.

However, separable phrasal verbs must be separated when you use a personal pronoun. 


The meeting? They've called it off.

Here are some common separable phrasal verbs:


I didn't want to bring the situation up at the meeting.
(bring up = start talking about a particular subject)
Please can you fill this form in?
(fill in = write information in a form or document)
I'll pick you up from the station at 8 p.m.
(pick up = collect someone in a car or other vehicle to take them somewhere)
She turned the job down because she didn't want to move to Glasgow.
(turn down = to not accept an offer)


Relative clauses

Use defining relative clauses to give information about a noun in a sentence. The listener or reader NEEDS this information to understand the sentence.

A doctor is a person who cures sick people.

The girl who sits next to me at work has a bag just like yours.

where

That’s the place where we got married.

The town where my uncle lives is a few miles from here.


which or that

A corkscrew is a thing which you use to open bottles.

who

An architect is a person who designs buildings.

Reported speech

Use reported speech to talk about what another person said in the past.

Eve:                      ‘I went to the party on Friday night’.

James:                 ‘Eve said that she had gone to the party on Friday night’.

        

References to times in the past also may need to change

References to times in the past also may need to change when using reported speech, if that time is no longer the same.

this morning / week / month→that morning / week / month

yesterday→the previous day

last week / month→the previous week / month

ago→earlier / previously

tomorrow→the following day

next week / month→the following week / month

Don’t use quotation marks (“) when reporting speech.
use He / She / I said (that) ... You can also use He / She told me (that)...; I told him / her (that)
the verb in the sentence may shift to a past tense

am / is / are changes to was / were

I am fine.”   She said that she was fine.

present simple changes to past simple

I like it.”  He said he liked it.

present continuous changes to past continuous

She’s sleeping.”  He said that she was sleeping.

will changes to would

I’ll be there.”   You said that you’d be there.

can changes to could

I can come to the meeting.”   You said that you could come to the meeting.

past simple changes to past perfect

I did the shopping.”  Tom said that he had done the shopping.

present perfect changes to past perfect

I’ve read that book.”  I told him that I’d read the book.

past continuous changes to past perfect continuous

She was walking home alone.”   He said that she had been walking home alone.

present perfect continuous changes to past perfect continuous

I’ve been working,”   I told him that I’d been working

Will and going to, for prediction

We use both will and to be going to when we want to make a prediction about the future. A prediction is a statement that we make about the future.

When a person makes a prediction they say what they think will happen in the future.

'Will' or 'Going To'? (Predictions)

We use to be + going to + infinitive when we make a prediction based on evidence we have now.

We use will + infinitive when we make a prediction which is only a guess or an opinion of ours.

use the structure 'will + infinitive
'to be going to + infinitive

We use the structure to be going to + infinitive if we make a prediction about the future because we have evidence now that supports us in making that prediction.

This means that something now (in the present) tells us what is going to happen in the future.

Predictions about the future are made every day. Here are some predictions that we see on a regular basis:


Wish

We use the verb wish or the phrase if only to talk about things which we want but which are not possible:


I wish I could see you next week.
If only we could stop for a drink.
I wish we had a bigger house.
They are always busy. If only they had more time.
John was very lazy at school. Now he wishes he had worked harder.


wishes for the past


I wish I had worked harder when I was at school.
Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.



were instead of was


I wish I was/were taller.
John wishes he wasn't/weren't so busy.
I'm freezing. If only it wasn't/weren't so cold.



wishes for the present


I don't like this place. I wish I lived somewhere more interesting.
These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.
I wish I was taller.
John wishes he wasn't so busy.
I'm freezing. If only it wasn't so cold.


wishes for the future


I don't like my work. I wish I could get a better job.
That's a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.
I always have to get home early. If only my parents would let me stay out later.


Would expressing habits, in the past

Significa "piedra antigua"

The object clause is a phrase on which a verb performs an action. It falls at the end of a sentence, and is governed by a verb or a preposition.

Past simple

We can always use the past simple as an alternative to used to or would to talk about past states or habits. The main difference is that the past simple doesn't emphasise the repeated or continuous nature of the action or situation. Also, the past simple doesn't make it so clear that the thing is no longer true.


We went to the same beach every summer.
We used to go to the same beach every summer.
We would go to the same beach every summer.

If something happened only once, we must use the past simple.


I went to Egypt in 2014. 

Would
Used to + infinitive

We can use used to to talk about past states that are not true any more.


We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
There didn't use to be a supermarket there. When did it open?
Did you use to have a garden?

We can also use used to to talk about past habits (repeated past actions) that don't happen any more.


I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.
She used to smoke but she gave up a few years ago.

used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to + -ing, which has a different meaning. The difference is covered here.