von Guillermo Saldana Vor 6 Jahren
169
Biology
Chemical bonds are crucial in the formation and function of various substances and structures. Covalent bonds, such as those in carbon dioxide, involve the sharing of electrons between atoms.
von Guillermo Saldana Vor 6 Jahren
169
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Partially negative and partially positive molecules that interact with each other through space, an example of this is hydrogen chloride
Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electrons between atoms, sodium chloride is an example of ionic bonding
Cells
Lac Operon - repressor protein binds to the operator sequence to initiate transcription. There are specific gene sequences that get expressed; x, y, a. Lac I makes the receptor protein.
Bacterial Chromosome, Fimbriae, Nucleoid, Ribosomes, plasma membrane, Cell wall, Glycocalyx, Flagella
Plant Cell
Cellular Respiration - Creates ATP; glycolysis (cytosol), pyruvate oxidation, kerb's cycle (inner membrane of mitochondrion), oxidation phosphorylation
Photosynthesis - makes sugars for plants through the buildup of sugars as their energy. Includes ETC, Chemiosmosis, light reactions, and the Calvin Cycle
Hypertonic: Plasmolyzed
Hypotonic Solution: Turgid (normal)
Isotonic Solution: Flaccid
Plasmodesmata, Cell Wall, Cental Vacuole
Plasma Membrane, Smooth and Rough ER, Nucleus (Nuclear Envelope, Nucleolus, Chromatin), Plasma Membrane, Ribosomes, Mitochondrion, Golgi Apparatus, Peroxisome
Animal Cell
Osmosis
Hypotonic Solution: Lysed
Hypertonic: Shriveled
Isotonic Solution: Normal
Flagellum, Centrosome, Cytoskeleton (Mircofilaments, Intermediate Filaments, Microtubles), Microvilli, Lysosome
Lipids - not really considered macromolecules because they do not contain true polymers
Steroids - lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings
Testosterone - common steroid typically present in males in copious amounts
Cholesterol - type of steroid that is a crucial molecule in animals
Phospholipids - similar to a fat molecule but only has two fatty acids attached to a glycerol rather than 3; form a phosholipid bilayer
Hydrophobic Tail - doesn't interact with water
Hydrophilic Head - interacts with water
Fat - constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules
Fatty Acids - has a long carbon skeleton; usually 16-18 carbon atoms in length
Unsaturated - the molecules cannot pack together closely enough to solidify because of the kinks in some of their fatty acid hydrocarbon chains
Trans - the location of opposite hydrogens results in a straight chain structure that are not typically found in nature but through human processing
Cis - kinks in the cis double bonds located to prevent molecules from packing together closely enough to solidify at room temperature
Saturated - fatty acids that are packed closed together that form a solid at room temperature, example is butter
Glycerol - an alcohol; each of its 3 carbons bears a hydroxyl group
Nucleic Acids
DNA - genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents. Made up of A, T, G, and C nucleotides
Eukaryotes
Translation - messenger RNA is translated into proteins by initiation, elongation, termination, and recycling
Transcription - primarily localized to the nucleus; produces pre-mRNA; RNA splicing done by spliceosomes to remove introns and connect exons; poly A tail and 5' cap are added for stabilization
Replication - the process by which a eukaryote duplicates its DNA into another copy that is passed onto daughter cells; multiple ORI sequences
Prokaryotes
Translation - involves the assembly of two ribosomal subunits, mature mRNA to be translated, the tRNA charged with N-formylmethionine; translation has an A, P, and E sites.
Transcription - requires the DNA double helix to partially unwind in the region of RNA synthesis, this region is called the transcription bubble; creates mature mRNA
Replication - the process by which a prokaryote duplicates its DNA into another copy that is passed onto daughter cells; bi-directional and originates at a single origin of replication
Experiments
Avery, McCarty, & MacLeod - DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation
Hershey & Chase - concluded that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material
Meselson & Stahl - tested the hypothesis of DNA replication using 15N and 14N; found conservative, semi-conservative, and dispersive forms of DNA replication
Griffith - one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process called transformation; used a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain
RNA - acts as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA around the cell. Made up of A, U, G, and C nucleotides.
Proteins - constructed from the same set of 20 amino acids
Quaternary Structure - overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of the polypeptide subunits
Hemoglobin - an example of a globular protein with quaternary structure
Tertiary Structure - overall shape of polypeptide resulting from interactions between R groups
Enzymes - a substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction
Hydrophobic Interaction - nonpolar amino acid R groups close together
Disulfide Bridges - covalent bonds that further reinforce the shape of a protein
Secondary Structure - refers to the interaction of the hydrogen bond donor and acceptor residues of the repeating peptide unit
Beta Pleated Sheet - two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lying side by side are connected by hydrogen bonds
Alpha Helix - delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every 4th amino acid
Primary Structure - linear sequence of amino acids referred to as the polypeptide chain; linked together by covalent bonds
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Structure - 1-4 linkage of beta glucose monomers
Chitin - carbohydrates used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons, present in animal cells
Cellulose - major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells, a polymer of glucose
Storage - 1-4 linkage of alpha glucose monomers
Starch - a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within cellular structures known as plastids, starch is present in plant cells
Glycogen - it serves as an energy reserve, chief form of carbohydrate stored in the animal body, and yields glucose on hydrolysis
an ester formed from glycerol and three fatty acid groups, the building blocks of lipids
a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group, they form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids
a simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl and an amino group
Peptide - a compound consisting of two or more amino acids linked together by a -OC-NH- linkage
Polypeptide - many amino acids linked together that create a chain
Disaccharides
2 monosaccharides combined to form a sugar
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars that are the most basic units of carbohydrates
