por Aryeetey Joshua hace 9 meses
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Vesicant (blistering agent)
Irritant, toxic
Irritant/Skin, eyes
Lachrymatory, irritant
Lachrymatory, toxic
Lachrymatory
Irritant
Vesicant
Irritant/Sternutatory
Irritant, can blur vision
Irritant, lachrymatory
Irritant, lachrymatory, toxic
Severe irritant, causes burns
Irritant/Eyes, skin, lungs
Irritant/Skin and mucous membranes, corrosive, toxic
Irritant/Lung
Notices would be posted on all approaches to an affected area, warning people to take precautions.
To warn of a gas attack, a bell would be rung, often made from a spent artillery shell.
t the noisy batteries of the siege guns, a compressed air strombus horn was used, which could be heard nine miles away.
Gas alert by Arthur Streeton, 1918
The Canadian soldiers are said to have found a way to minimize the effects of the mustard gas. Since the gas was sent by the wind towards them
The French, conversely, when the gas was used against them, fled, and therefore spent more time in the gas, suffering greater casualties.
hey understood that it would minimize the exposure to the gas if the Canadians not only did not flee but ran through the gas.
The kilt-wearing Highland regiments of Scotland were especially vulnerable to mustard gas injuries due to their bare legs.
At Nieuport some Scots battalions took to wearing women's tights beneath the kilt as a form of protection
A modified version of the P Helmet, called the PH Helmet, was issued in January 1916, and was additionally impregnated with hexamethylenetetramine to improve the protection against phosgene .
British Vickers machine gun crew wearing PH gas helmets with exhaust tubes.
The adjutant of the 1/23rd Battalion, The London Regiment, recalled his experience of the P helmet at Loos:
"The goggles rapidly dimmed over, and the air came through in such suffocatingly small quantities as to demand a continuous exercise of will-power on the part of the wearers."
A mouthpiece was added through which the wearer would breathe out to prevent carbon dioxide build-up.
The British P gas helmet, partially effective against phosgene and with which all infantry were equipped with at Loos, was impregnated with phenate hexamine
the fabric of which was soaked in sodium hyposulfite (commonly known as "hypo")
whenever it rained, the chemical would wash out into the soldier's eyes.
When going into combat, gas helmets were typically worn rolled up on top of the head, to be pulled down and secured about the neck when the gas alarm was given.
Eye-pieces, which were prone to fog up, were initially made from talc.
Various gas masks employed on the Western Front during the war.
basically a bag placed over the head.
The fabric of the bag was impregnated with a chemical to neutralise the gas
In 1915 the british launched their own chlorine gas attack, but the change of wind ended up gassing 2000 of their own
Around 1 000 000 gas casualties, 12000 canadian
not only humans that needed protection from gas; horses and mules
Because mustard gas touches the entire body it was very hard to come up with countermeasure for it.
Some countries tried but mostly failed
The best solution only dimmed the effects
The gas traveled through the battlefield in a green-yellow cloud
they released the gas as the wind was blowing in the direction of the Canadians
Curtiss JN-4 (Canadian)
Curtiss C-1 Canada
Sikorsky Ilya Muromets
Sikorsky S-16
Sikorsky S-5A
reconnaissancev
Lebed VII
Grigorovich M-9
Grigorovich M-5
Anatra DSS
Anatra DS Anasal
Anatra D Anade
Anatra Anadis
A Vlaicu III
Yokosuka Ro-go Ko-gata
american marking
Engineering Division USD-9
Curtiss HS
Curtiss HA Dunkirk fighter
Curtiss Model H
Curtiss Model E
C-class blimp
Burgess Model S
B-class blimp
Burgess HT-2 Speed Scout
Aeromarine 39
Italian marking
SIAI S.9
Savoia-Pomilio SP.4
SAML S.2
Pomilio PE
Macchi M.5
Macchi M.3
Gabardini monoplane
Caproni Ca.1
Ansaldo SVA
Ansaldo A.1 Balilla
French marking
voisin LAR/LBR/10/E.94/11
Wibault Wib.1
Donnet-Denhaut flying boat
Caudron C.21
Caudron G.2
trainer
Breguet 16
night bomber
Borel hydro-monoplane
Borel-Boccacio Type 3000
Bernard SAB C1
Astra bomber
Astra-Torres airship
patrol blimp
Astoux-Vedrines triplane
experimental
British marking
BAT Bantam
Avro 503
Armstrong Whitworth F.K.3
reconnaissance
Airco DH.9
bomber
Bristol Type 22(british)
British markig
Airco DH.2
fighter
AD Flying Boat
patrol seaplane
23-class airship
training airship
Handley Page 0/400 (British)
Sopwith Camel (British)
German marking
Siemens-Schuckert (German)
Fokker Eindecker(German)
Gotha G V (german)
Any spark would set the wood and canvas on fire
they were very costly
owing to the still small payload they could carry, and with all the bombs
the amount of damage they causes was not a very good use of military resources.
A typical two-seat plane had more than 50,000 different parts
4,000 hours of labor to put together
The aircraft were too cramped to carry parachutes, the pilot died
Ale to fly at night
. They can be fired at night with no detection
Amount of bombs
Zeppelins could carry a modest bomb payload a great distance,
Fly high in the sky
they were able to fly higher than some planes
As trench systems developed and became more complex, it became harder for pilots to accurately record what was happening on the ground
aerial photography was introduced early in 1915. The first experimental photographs were taken by hand
aerial reconnaissance was most effective when using cameras which were attached to the aircraft
At first most aircraft were unarmed
some pilots did carry weapons with them including pistols and grenades
the body of the aircraft itself made it difficult and dangerous to fire any weapons.
Darts like these and other dangerous objects were used by both sides
They were usually dropped in bundles from aeroplanes
but later new technological advances allowed pilots to drop bombs and shoot down enemy aircraft.
by november 1918, 25% of the royal air force were canadian
By the end of the war, faster long-range bombers were built that could carry a much larger weight of bombs.
Pilots soon found that the best way to shoot down an enemy plane was with a mounted machine gun.
if the machine gun was mounted at the front of the plane, the propeller would get in the way of the bullets.
An invention called an "interrupter" was invented by the Germans that allowed the machine gun to be synchronized with the propeller. Soon all fighter planes used this invention.
Tsar Tank aka Lebedenko Tank/Netopyr 1915 (Russian
So, the wheels were meant to be 12 metres in diameter and men were meant to be able to fit in them. The planning to scale didn’t go terribly well and after a few projects, the Russians decided to completely scrap the absurd idea.
It was based on a rather simple fact. It was easier to hold the line rather than moving forwards and attacking.
The Tsar Tank. Well… it was different. As in the picture, the Tsar Tank was and armoured vehicle and instead of tracks, it had what would seem to look like bicycle wheels.
Fiat 2000 1918 (Italian)
Also the tank had a almost spherical top where there would have been a turret which could rotate a full 360. It was actually the first tank to have a fully rotating turret if you didn’t count the Renault FT.
The Fiat 2000 had around the same dimensions as the Mark V tanks. But the Fiat 2000 was quite a lot heavier as the Fiat 2000 weighed 40 tons while the British Mark V weighed 28 tons.
During the course of World War One, Italy did not field any armoured units due to a lack of tanks, so instead, they produced original designs.
Tank Mark IX 1918 (British)
Tank MK V, MK V*,MK V** 1918 (British)
Tank MK IV 1917 (British)
Tank MK II 1917 (British)
Tank MK I aka Big Willie/Mother/Centipede 1916 (British)
Medium Tank MK A aka Whippet 1918 (British)
Medium Mark C aka Hornet 1918 (British)
Little Willie Landship 1915 (British)
this is when people would have to follow a path made out of barbed wire and when they were in a ‘kill zone’, they would all have been gunned down
Also, if it weren’t for Winston Churchill, the idea/invention of tanks probably would not have happened as he was the one who set up a committee in 1915 to tackle the problems of trench warfare
Even though Little Willie never went to combat, it was a huge achievement in many aspects and lots of later tank designs would come from the Little Willie.
It was made in July 1915, weighed 16.5 tons and as it was the first tank and as the engines were not brilliant that early on, could only crawl forward at a max speed of 2 miles/h. Only one was made and is at the Tank Museum in Bovington.
The Little Willie was like the LK II in the sense that it too was a prototype. It was also the first completed tank in history.
War Tank America aka Steam Tank 1918 (US)
Model 1917 Holt Gas-Electric 1918 (US)
Skeleton Tank 1918 (US)
M1917 6-ton 1918 (US)
Ford Model 1918 (US)
There were only 15 originals made probably because not too much later on, the US made better and stronger tanks which had thicker armor.
It was considered as a ‘light tank’ as it weighed 3 tons.
You can also see that from the tanks so far, the design is quite unique as unlike the other tanks, the Ford Model was not ‘filled in’ as much.
his was one of the first tank designs that the US made.
Sturmpanzerwagen Oberschlesien 1918 (German)
Sturmpanzerwagen A7V-U 1918 (German)
Sturmpanzerwagen A7V 1917 (German)
Leichter Kampfwagen II aka LK II 1918 (German)
The main weapon was an automatic machine gun and the tank itself could travel at 18 km/h.
, the LK II was made after the LK I and its armour was in some places up to 14mm thick which meant that it was around 8.5 tons even though it was meant to have been a ‘light tank’.
Leichter Kampfwagen I aka LK I 1918 (German)
K Großkampfwagen aka K-Wagen 1918 (German)
It also had seven machine guns and could hold up to 27 men.
But still due to its weight, the tank itself was not able to move very fast but travelled and a max of 4.7mph.
This also took off at least 40 tons so the final copy was 120 tons.
but the ministry did not like how heavy it was so they cut parts of it off and made it shorter.
While the A7V was being invented the War Ministry in Germany ordered the invention of another tank which was to be heavy. So, the K Großkampfwagen was made and it weighed an astonishing 160 tons
Char d’assault St. Chamond 1916 (French)
Char d’assault Schneider 1916 (French)
The St. Chamond was not much better than the Schneider for the reason that the designers did not think realistically. The caterpillar tracks were too short, could not hold the 23-ton tank, etc.
Renault FT-17 1917 (France)
As well as this, the tanks gave a big boost of morale to the men.
the tanks armour was so strong that nearly no bullets could penetrate the armour.
before the tanks were invented, thousands of men would be killed trying to cross the German barbed wire which was thousands of metres long and very deep
Also, the German barbed wire was a lot thicker than British barbed wire. The men would have been funnelled into a ‘kill zone’ and gunned to death. But when tanks came into place, the tanks could easily go straight through the barbed wire and make a path for the men.
the tank needs metal that is thick enough so that not normal bullets can penetrate it. The part that made lots of tanks unusable is one of the main things, the tracks.
The tanks would not sink into water, but when they faced deep mud, they would sink.
Another weakness to the tank was that if there was a trench which did not have a big width, the tank would fall into the trench and get stuck and would not be able to get back out again.
the Mark IV tank had a top speed of 4 mph which is not a big difference to the average walking pace, 3 mph.
Tank going over trenches/barbed wire
despite this the first tanks were not able to break through the German lines
A field commander would have one or two pigeons with him, and if other lines of communication were not available, he could write a message on a small piece of paper, secured by a small canister attached on the bird’s leg.
Signal lamps are a focused lamp which can produce a pulse of light to send a message to another. In large versions this pulse is achieved by opening and closing shutters that are mounted in front of the lamp via a manually operated pressure switch.
Another form of communication in use by the U.S. military was the electric signal lamp. Communication by signal lamps are similar to flag signals in that it is a visual signal and is often times restricted by one’s line of sight
With the increasing use of radio and telephone communication, a new way of conveying important information was needed to ensure the listener received the correct message.This led to the development of the phonetic alphabet.
A phonetic alphabet is a list of words used to identify letters in a message transmitted by radio or telephone.
Using this method helps to prevent any confusion between similar sounding letters or if there is a poor connection during transmission.
For example the word “Marine” would be “Mike Alfa Romeo India November Echo when spelled out in the current phonetic alphabet.
Spoken words from an approved list are substituted for letters.
In 1792 Chappe constructed 556 semaphore towers throughout France, spanning 3,000 miles. This method of communication would be used by the French military until the 1850s.
This was a method of communication using a series of visual signals and rotating paddles. The message was encoded by the position of the paddles.
The message can then be read when the paddles are in a fixed position. This system proved to be much faster than a horse and rider, and once constructed proved to be a much more cost efficient way of sending messages.
Wig wag was developed by U.S. Army Major Albert Myer during the American Civil War. Based upon the idea of Morse code (each letter being represented by a series of dots and dashes)
To the untrained eye, it looked as though the signalman was just “wagging” the flag around in no particular order, giving it the name “wig wag.” Marines would utilize wig wag through the end of WWI
his method uses one flag that is waved back and forth in a series of “wags” to represent each letter of the message. There are two basic wig wag flags,
Each letter has three basic movements: down to the left, down to the right, or down in front of the signalman. Since this code was based upon Morse Code, it could take up to five waves of the flag for a single letter.
one white with a red center and one red with a white center. The white flag was used at dusk or dawn (times of day with low light or low visibility) and the red was used during days with bright sunshine.
Flag signals may also be used to communicate messages between different ships that are close to one another
often this occurs because they are performing dangerous operations, such as when refueling at sea
Signal flags are a uniform set of easily identifiable nautical codes used to convey visual messages and signals between two ships or from ship to shore.
The 1937 Issue of the Royal Navy Signalling Card
The 1937 Issue of the Royal Navy Signaling Card
They are based on an internationally recognized set of codes referred to as the International Code of Signals
published in nine different languages; English, French, Italian, German, Japanese, Spanish, Norwegian, Russian and Greek.
Radio operators with portable transmitters were able to warn soldiers of an attack of poisonous gas, giving them time to put on their gas masks.
Advances in radio technology such as oscillators, amplifiers and the electron tube made reliable voice communication possible
A telephone converts sound (from our voice) into electronic signals suitable for transmission via cables or other transmission media over long distances, and replays those signals simultaneously so we can hear them.
They installed 40,000 miles of combat lines, and established 134 permanent telegraph offices and 273 telephone exchanges
The U.S. Army Signal Corps constructed 2,000 miles of telegraph and telephone pole lines using 28,000 miles of wire, and 32,000 miles of French communication poles.
on the Western Front, telephones were used to communicate between the front line Marines and Soldiers and their commanders
While it is often thought it means “save our ship”, it actually does not stand for anything.
The three letter message is easy to remember, which is crucial during emergencies.
telegraph lines throughout Europe and across the Atlantic, telegraph machines allowed governments and their leaders to instantly receive information on troop movements, battle outcomes, and other crucial information.
Each letter is represented by a unique series of short dots (dits) and longer dashes (dahs).
The duration of a dash is three times the length of a dot
It is very important that the transmitter be consistent, or the message might be misread completely!
Each word is separated by silence in the equivalent of one dash.
When the sender presses on the telegraph key he interrupts the current creating an audible pulse that is heard at the receiving station.
It cannot carry voice or other data, and relies only on pulses to communicate.
The receiver on the other end decodes the pulses to decode the message.
DWM Parabellum MG 14 and MG 14/17
Gast M1917
DWM MG 99, MG 01, MG 08, MG 08/15, MG 08/18 and MG 09
Bergmann MG 15nA (Air cooled version)
Bergmann MG 15 (Water cooled version)
Zastava M1905
PM M1910
Schwarzlose M1907/12
Maxim M1910
Maxim M1905
Hotchkiss M1909
Lewis Mk I and M1917
Vickers machine gun
Maxim M1884
Madsen machine gun (India)
Hotchkiss Mk I
Colt–Browning M1895/14 (Canadian service)
Nambu Type 3
Hotchkiss M1900
Nordenfelt M1884
Maxim M1906 and M1911
Lewis Mk I
Saint Étienne M1907
Perino M1908
Vickers Mk I
Gardner M1886
Fiat–Revelli M1914
Chauchat M1915
Benét–Mercié M1909
Browning M1917
Chauchat M1915 and M1918
Gatling gun
M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle
Lewis M1917
Hotchkiss M1914
Colt–Vickers M1915
Škoda M1909 and M1913
Škoda M1893 and M1902
Schwarzlose M1916 and M1916A
Schwarzlose M1907 and M1907/12
Madsen M1902
DWM MG 08
they were not easy to transport.
terrible for troops during an advance
had to be on a flat surface
machine guns needed 4-6 men to work them
They were very bulky and weighed a lot
They weighed between 30kg and 60kg
they would be positioned along the trenches
in the case of an attack from the enemy they would be ready to take care of the attack much faster than an ordinary rifle could.
the machine gun could also maintain this rate of fire for some time
where previously you may have had 100 men hold the trench line, you could use only three machine guns for the same defensive effect
it is belt fed
firing a single shot per trigger press, up to around 20 rounds a minute, or as quick as the operator fire and reload.
but this was not normal in combat, where "rapid fire" generally consisted of repeated bursts amounting to 250 rpm.
German machine gunners exploited the weapon’s long-range accuracy
Groups of guns could interlock their fire.
By exploiting the curved trajectory followed by their bullets, machine guns could fire indirectly, like miniature artillery pieces
even over the heads of friendly troops. These techniques required accurate maps and a firm basis of mathematical calculation.
1 to hold the gun, the other to hold the 47 round drum mag(there could be more members if more ammo is needed)
The machine gun overcame stalemates by creating a dominance on the battlefield and changed army tactics for the rest of the war
