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Folded protein gets packed into another transport Vesicle
Chloroplasts
Plastids
Peroxisomes
Can return to ER
Lysosomes
Can travel to Cytoplasm
Folded proteins get packed into secretory Vesicle (specific type) on the Trana side of Golgi
Delivered to Plasma membrane
Embed into Membrane if they are membrane-embedded
Undergo exocytosis if they are free floating
Secrete out of cell
GCPR is activated with a first messenger bind
Then the now activated GCPR binds to the G protein then activates GTP and activated G protein.
Attaches to Adenyl Cyclase which causes phosphatase to occur
Activated Adenyl Cyclase converts cAMP to ATP
Then second messenger cAMP activates another protein
Cellular Response
When signal molecules bond with receptor sites they create dimer of two tyrosine kinase receptors
Dimerization activates phosphorylation
The active receptor is now recognized by multiple relay proteins
Cellular Response
Cell membranes are selectively permeable barriers due to their lipid bilayer and the presence of various proteins and cholesterol. They serve as a protective boundary that separates the interior of a cell from its external environment. This selectively permeability is crucial for a variety of cellular functions. As a result of these properties, the membranes can regulate the passage of ions, nutrients, waste products, and other molecules in and out of the cell. This ensures that the internal environment remains stable and conducive for the cell's ideal functioning. This selective permeability is vital for processes like nutrient uptake, waste removal, signal transduction, and the maintenance of cellular homeostasis.
These are highly selective and facilitate the transport ions, nutrients, and other needed substances. Contains integral and peripheral proteins. These integral proteins traverse the lipid bilayer, they can have channels or transporters that allow specific molecules to pass through the membrane.
These transport proteins that often require energy, in the case of active transport, or they will rely on the concentration gradients, this in the case of passive transport, to help move substances.
Represents the membrane as a dynamic and constantly changing structure, with lipids and proteins able to move within the bilayer, this further influences permeability.
Proteins in the cell membrane act as receptors for specific molecules, this allows the cell to detect and respond to environmental signals.
The hydrophobic tails face towards the interior of the bilayer.
The hydrophilic heads face the aqueous environment both in and outside the cell.
Osmoregulation: defined as the control of water balance; nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and maintaining an electrochemical gradient across the membrane
Cells must control the passage of ions and molecules to maintain the proper concentration of substances inside and out.
Because of the unequal distribution of electrons between the atoms of different elements, slightly positive and slightly negative charges develop in different parts of the molecule
Function: Play the role of organizing microtubules so that they can serve their functions as the cell's skeletal system. They help to determine the locations of the nucleus and other organelles in the cell.
Structure: 9 circularly arranged triplet microtubules. There paired barrel shaped organelles located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nuclear envelope.
Function: Responsible for the synthesis of the essential lipids like phospholipids and cholesterol. Its also responsible for the production and secretion of steroid hormones and the metabolism of carb. Lastly, it stores and releases calcium ions.
Structure: Tube like structure located near the cell periphery. These tubes sometimes branch and form a network that is reticular on first glance. The network of smooth ER allows an increased surface area to only have the purpose of storage to key enzymes
Function: Works as a factory where proteins coming from the ER are processed and sorted for transport to their designated destinations. As well as synthesizing glycolipids and sphingomyelin within the golgi
Structure: Stack of flattened cisternae and associated vesicles. This transfers proteins and lipids coming from the ER from the cis face and exiting through the trans face.
Function: The powerhouse of the cell. Generates most of the chemical energy needed to power the biochemical cell reactions.
Structure: Has its own double membrane with inner and outer mitochondrial membranes, and is separated by an intermembrane.
Function: The respiratory of genetic information and is the cell's control center. DNA replication and transcription, as well as RNA processing all take place within the nucleus.
Structure: Lives in the double membraned organelle, withholds the nucleolus, holds 25% of volume. Chromatins are found within the nucleus containing proteins and DNA
Function: Produces/Transfers proteins throughout the rest of the cell to function. Its ribosomes are small and round whose function is to make those proteins
Structure: Flattened membrane sheets (Cisternae), they surround a part of the nucleus and extend across the cytoplasm. Sections of this Cisternae has ribosomes attached and held together by microtubules of the cytoskeleton.
Function: Manages the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell. They keep toxic substances out of the cell. They contain receptors and channels that allow specific molecules (ions, nutrients, wastes, and metabolic products), mediate cellular and extracellular activities passing between organelles. Lastly, they maintain cell mobility, secretions, and absorptions of substances.
Structure: The main part of the structureis the phospholipid bilayer which forms a stable barrier between 2 compartments. Inside the plasma membrane, these compartments are the in and outside of the cell.
Function: The ribosome is the sole site for protein synthesis. They read the mRNA sequence and translate the genetic code into an amino acids string which lead to grow into long chains that fold to form proteins. Attaches itself to Rough ER when available (Only in Euk)
Structure: Each ribosome consists of 2 separate RNA-protein complexes (aka small and large subunits). The ribosomes themselves are made up of RNA and proteins.
Function: This holds all the works for cell expansion, cell growth, and cell replication throughout it. While doing this, it also protects the cells from damage.
Structure: Gel like fluid inside the cell. It provides a sort of like a stabilization to keep all the other organelles in place, which gives the cell itself its shape.
Function: for controlling the activity and reproduction of the cell. In the nucleoid, it's the place where transcription and replication of DNA takes place. It binds proteins leading them to have a lower molecular mass. This alters the shape of the nucleoid itself.
Structure: Largely composed of about 60% DNA, plus a part of it is made up of RNA and protein. It is proven to had a defined, and self-adherent shape and an underlying longitudinal shape. It lacks membrane and is located within the cytoplasm. It contains proteins, including enzymes and RNA as well as DNA.
Structure: A coiled, string-like structure that's sharp bent and consists of a rotary motor at its base and are composed of the protein flagellin. The basal body, a rod and a system of rings embedded in the cell envelope; the hook, which functions as a universal joint; and the filament, composed of thousands of copies of protein flagellin arranged helically and ending with a filament cap composed of an oligomer (a molecule that consists of few repeating units which could be derived, actually or conceptually from molecules)
Function: Gives motility organelle that enables movement and chemotaxis. They spin around and propel the cells very quickly. They act as little fins or tails to help the cell move.
Function: They initiate contacts between mating pairs. They also facilitate the transfer of genetic material and they draw mating cells into close contact which increased the fertility of the union. They also have a role in the movement process but are most commonly involved with the adherence to surfaces which facilitates infection and is the key to virulence characteristic.
Structure: Resembles hair attached to the outside of the prokaryote (attached to cell wall). It's typically associated with bacterial adhesion related to bacterial colonization and infection. They are primarily composed of oligomeric pili proteins, which arrange helically to form a cylinder. When new pili protein molecules are made, they insert into the base of the pilius.
Function: They're used in this genetic engineering to amplify as many copies of genes as possible. They are typically tools of cloning, transferring, and manipulating genes.
Structure: A small, circular, double stranded DNA molecule that's distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA. They naturally exist in bacterial cells. These genes often carry the plasmids provide bacteria with genetic advantages, like antibiotic resistance. Most commonly found in the cytoplasm.
Function: While the cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane of plant cells, it also provides a tensile like strength and protection against mechanical and osmotic stress and other enemies that reveal as a threat to the cell. It also allows the cell to develop turgor pressure which is the pressure of the cell contents against the wall. It's basically a wall meant to protect all the components of the prokaryotic cell.
Structure: The cell wall is one of the outermost layers of the cell. It's composed of cellulose microfibrils and cross linking glycans which are embedded in a highly cross-linked matric of pectin polysaccharides.
Function: This helps prokaryotes attach to each other and to various other surfaces in their environment, it also helps prevent the cell from drying out. It's also a sort of boundary which protects bacteria from toxic compounds and desiccation (drying out) and allows them to again adhere to surfaces and escape the immune system of the host.
Structure: It's the sticky, outermost layer of the cell which is usually made of polysaccharides.
FUNCTION: codes genetic information that molecules carry. It can be made into different bases to carry epigenetic information. Energy carrier and cofactor of CTP. Paired with Guanine(4/4)
STRUCTURE: a single heterocyclic aromatic ring, a keto group of C2 and an amino group at C4c. It's molecule is a planar shape. Cytosine can form 3 hydrogen bonds with guanine
FUNCTION: A building block of DNA which encodes information. It's also used for energy in G proteins. Paired with Cytosine. (3/4)
STRUCTURE: Composed of 2 nitrogen, 3 carbon, 4 hydrogen, and 1 oxygen. It's 2 rings attached to each other, 5 membered ring and a 6 membered ring.
FUNCTION: A nitrogenous bases for the nucleic acid synthesis. 1/2 purine nucleobases, it's job is to produce nucleotides for nucleic acids. It's typically paired with Thymine. Belongs to nucleotide group called purines (1/4)
STRUCTURE: Made of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen atoms. It's chemical formula is C5H5N5. When it attaches to ribose and phosphate, it forms a nucleotide.
FUNCTION: Helps stabilize nucleic acid structures. Paired with Adenine. (2/4)
STRUCTURE: Composed of a single ring consisting of carbon (4), hydrogen (5), nitrogen (2), and oxygen (2).
FUNCTION: Uracil (RNA) replaces Thymine (DNA) in RNA. It helps carry out enzyme synthesis that's necessary for cells to function through bonding with the riboses and phosphates
STRUCTURE: 4 hydrogen, 4 carbon, 2 nitrogen, and 2 oxygen. It's atoms that are bonded together, gives a ring shape.
Adds amino acids to 3' of tRNA
Eukaryotes
80's
Binding Sites
EPA
Prokaryotes
70's
Makes peptide bonds
Pre mRNA in Eukaryotes
Poly-A Tail on 3'
Protects from degradation in cytosplasm
uses ATP
Introns and Exons
Spliceosomes
Introns Removed
Mature mRNA
mRNA leaves the nucleus
Modified Guanine 5'Cap
Allows Translation to occur
Recognition signal for Ribosomes to bind
Upstream
Promoter
TATA Box
DNA Sequence
This visualization is a lot easier because it can only have 2 options: 2 pure dna strands. 3 pure light blue DNA and 1 pure dark blue DNA
A way to visualize the dispersed model is the result in the first replication being unpredictive and messy strands. very messy strands, unpredictable
A way to visualize in 1 pure strand separates and in the first replication you will end up with 2 strands of DNA equally dispersed into it. the 2nd replication could result in 2 equally split DNA strands together and 2 pure strands of DNA. 1 light blue and 1 dark blue strand combined and a pure light blue strand of DNA
