Extremely Low Concertation: instead of using scientific notation, diluted concentrations are represented in parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt).
Nomenclature is a set of rules for naming chemical substances in a methodical way
Acid (H__)
Polyatomic (__ate)
Binary (__ide)
*strength and concentration of acids/bases are NOT related!
Strong bases: base that dissociates completely into ions in water
Concentration stoichiometry: chemists determine the correct amount of substances needed using stoichiometry
Mole Ratio: a ratio between the coefficients in an equation
Conversion Factor: use the mole ratio as a conversion factor to find an unknown value
Solubility Table: help determine
solubility
Water Cycle: the flow of water on, above, and below the surface of Earth
Aquifer: a layer of underground rock that holds a considerable quantity of water; an important source of fresh water
Potable Water: water that is suitable for drinking
Transpiration: the evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant
Water Molecule
% Concertation: in each 100 units of solution, the amount of solute dissolved is measured.
Surfactant: a compound with a non-polar "tail" and a polar "head" that can reduce the surface tension of a solvent.
Solute: the substance that is dissolves in the solvent
Serial Dilution: the stepwise
dilution of a substance in
solution
Solubility: the amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature.
UNSATURATED SOLUTION: a solution that CAN hold more solute in a given amount of solvent at a particular temperature
Dilution Calculations: rearrange as needed to solve for one unknown value
Solvent: the substance that dissolves the solute
Dilution: the process of decreasing the concentration
of a solution by adding more solvent
Standard Solution : A solution where the precise concentration is known
Titration Labware:
Burette: a calibrated tube used to dispense very precise and accurate volumes of standard solution ( read from the meniscus)
Funnel: the standard solution is transferred into the
narrow burette opening by pouring it through the funnel
Erlenmeyer flask: the solution of unknown concentration is
placed in this
Pipette: used to transfer precise and accurate
volumes of the solution of unknown concentration to the
Erlenmeyer flask
Volumetric Flask: used to prepare the standard solution
Endpoint: the point during a titration when the indicator changes colour
Equivalence point: the point in a titration where the mole ratio of the known solution is stoichiometrically equal to the original number of moles of the unknown solution
Analyte: the other solution in the flask
Titrant: the solution in the burette during a titration (concentration is known)
Titration: is a laboratory process for determining the concentration of a solution by reacting it with a known concentration solution.
pH = “power of hydrogen", it is used to communicate the acidity of a solution, and the amount of hydronium ions
Calculating pH
Changes in “powers of 10” are represented by a
Logarithmic Scale
Weak bases: base that dissociates very slightly in water
Weak Acid: acid that ionizes very slightly in water
Strong Acid: acid that ionizes completely into ions in water, meaning that it will conduct electricity well.
Strength: is how completely a
compound dissociates in water
Stoichiometry can be used the do the math of acid and base stoichiometry
*Meniscus is were you read the burette properly in a titration lab
Conjugate BASE = the acid AFTER the proton is removed
Hydration: the process where
ions are surrounded by water
molecules
Dissociation: the process where
ions separate from the crystal
lattice to dissolve in water
Conjugate acid-base pair = two molecules that transfer protons
Stock Solution : A concentrated solution that needs to be diluted to a lower concentration
Concentration: amount of solute in a solvent
Solubility Curve: shows the solubility of a substance over a range of temperatures
The solubility of ionic compounds generally increases as the temperature rises.
Anion: Non-metals gain electrons
Cation: metals lose electrons
Polyatomic Ions
BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY OF BASE: a substance that takes (accepts) a proton and any negative ion, such as CN-, OH-, H2PO4
BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS: a substance that has a proton (H+) to donate, such as HCl, HNO3
, H2O
THE ARRHENIUS THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES: Ions can move freely in the solution and thus conduct electricity
Not all bases contain OH
H+ ions cannot exist in solution, and instead they will bond with H2O molecules to form hydronium ion
Activity Series: is a list of metals and their
reactivity
The Halogen Activity Series: negative ion (non-metal) is displaced
Acid: releases H+ when dissolved (pro)
Base: releases OH- (when dissolved) (pro)
Neutralization Reactions: A special kind of DD reaction that makes a solution with a pH closer to 7 than either of the reactants
Supersaturated solution: a solution that
contains MORE than the maximum quantity of
solute (at a given temperature and pressure);
dissolving is forced) (unstable)
SATURATED SOLUTION: a solution that
CANNOT hold any more solute in a given
amount of solvent at a particular
temperature
CONCENTRATED SOLUTION: a solution with a relatively large quantity of solute compared to the volume of the solution
DILUTE SOLUTION: a solution with a relatively
small quantity of solute compared to the volume of
the solution
Conjugate ACID= the base AFTER the proton is accepted/taken
% yield: the goal is the be as close to 100% as
possible, to express the efficiency of a reaction
Limiting reactant: the reactant completely used up first, the reaction stops when it runs out
Excess reactant: the reactant(s) left over after the reaction is complete
Stoichiometry: the process of determining the amount of reactants and products in chemical reactions using mathematics
Theoretical Yield: the maximum amount of a product that
can form in a chemical reaction (founded through stoichiometry)
Actual Yield: the amount of product that is actually
obtained during the experiment
Chemical Change: results in the formation of
new substances
Physical Change: while a substance's physical qualities may change, its chemical identity does not
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Entities: different units depending on the
substance: atoms, formula units, ions, molecules
The mole (mol): is a counting unit (mass/molar mass)
Mass = number of moles x Molar Mass (m = n x M)
Percentage composition: the percentage, by mass, of each element in a compound; it is found using the formula.
Least common multiple: to find the subscripts between atoms
Amedeo
Avogadro
Avogadro’s constant: 6.02 x 10^23 entities (a counting unit) (NA=)
Molar Mass (M): the mass of 1 mol of a substance (found on the periodic table by atomic mass). Use grams/mole (g/mol)
Ions: are simply atoms that have LOST or GAINED electrons
Ionic Compound: is a pure substance composed of positive and negative ions in a fixed ratio.
Hydrate: a compound with a specific number of water molecules chemically bonded to it to form a formula unit
Anhydrate: water can be removed from the hydrate by heating
% mass water =
% Experimental Error
Empirical Formula: shows the simplest whole number ratio of elements in a compound (subscripts are reduced)
Total Ionic Equation: an equation that separates the molecules into their ion forms
Spectator Ions are ions that are not involved in a chemical equation
Net Ionic Equation: a chemical equation that includes only the entities that react during the reaction
The Octet Rule: most atoms want to have 8 electrons in their valence energy level .
Atomic Theory: 1. Atoms are made up of smaller subatomic particles.
2. Atoms, of one element cannot be converted.
3. Atoms of one element share the same properties.
4. Atoms of different element combined to form compounds.
Niels Bohr: Proposed electrons orbit the nucleus in definite energy levels
Bohr-Rutherford Diagram: Shows the number of each type of subatomic particle in their appropriate location
Nucleus: contains protons and neutrons
Electrons: placed in energy levels orbiting the nucleus
Energy Level Diagrams
Electron Configuration: Shows the energy level and subshell (sublevel) with the number of electrons in the subshell indicated as superscript
Orbitals: Different energy levels are divided into
energy sublevels
IUPAC system: a Roman numeral in the ion’s name indicates the charge of the ion
Protons
Neutrons is a neutral particle in an atoms nucleus
Isotopes: atoms of one element with different numbers of neutrons
Isotopic Abundance: Different elements have different numbers of isotopes and each isotope exists in different abundances (a percentage %)
Average atomic mass = (abundance isotope 1)(mass of isotope 1) + (abundance isotope 2)(mass of isotope 2)
Radioisoptes: Some isotopes are stable, while others break apart easily
Nuclear Radition:
Gamma ray (γ): high energy electromagnetic radiation
Beta particle (β): negatively charged e-
Alpha particle (α): nucleus of an He-4 atom
Erwin Schrodinger: Proposed the quantum mechanical model based on mathematical calculations
Quantum Mechanical Model (Electron Cloud Model)
Chadwick: particles in the nucleus that do not have a charge (neutrons) and also have the same mass as a proton
Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment, discovered the
nucleus and proved it is positive, surrounded by electrons
J.J. Thomson: Plum pudding” model
John Dalton: Billiard ball model, Atoms can combine and get rearranged to form new
substances
Alchemists: tried to transform common metals into gold
Philosophers (400BCE)
Aristotle: proposed matter was made of 4 elements (water, earth, wind, fire)
Democritus: matter could be divided into smaller particles called “atomos”
Chemical Reaction: process where one or more substances change into one or more new substances
Chemical Equations: use chemical formulas
Combustion: A chemical reaction in which a fuel
burns in oxygen
Incomplete Combustion: Occurs when the oxygen supply is LIMITED
Complete Combustion: Occurs when there is PLENTY of oxygen, products are always CO2, H2O
Double Displacement: reaction in which elements in two compounds displace each other producing two new compounds
Precipitate: a substance separated from a solution
Solution: homogenous mixture of two or more substances
Law of Conservation of Mass: matter is neither
created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction
Catalyst: A substance that makes a chemical reaction
occur faster
Single Displacement: a reaction in which an element displaces another element in a compound, producing a new compound AND a new element
Decomposition: A large or more complex compound
breaks down into two (or more) simpler products
Synthesis: two reactants combine to form
a larger or more complex product
Periodic Trends
Electron Affinity (EA): is the amount of energy required to ADD an electron to a neutral atom in its gaseous state
Electronegativity: is a measure of an atom’s ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond
Bond polarity: to the distribution of e- across a single bond
Non-Polar Covalent Bond (ΔEN ≈ 0): Electrons are shared equally
Polar Covalent Bond (ΔEN <1.7): Electrons are NOT shared equally
Ionic Bond (ΔEN ≥ 1.7): Electrons are transferred from one atom to another
Ionization energy (IE): is the amount of energy required to REMOVE an electron from an atom or ion in its gaseous state
Ionic Radius: an ION’s size, measured in terms of an ion’sradius (in pm)
Atomic Radius: an ATOM’s size is measured in terms of its radius
Lewis symbols (Lewis dot diagram): are used to display the electrons found in an atom’s outermost shell ONLY
Moleclue: two or more atoms connected by chemical bonds
Chemical compounds: a substance formed from two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions
Oxides: An oxide is a compound of
any element combined with oxygen
Acid oxide is an oxide that makes an acidic solution when dissolved in water.
Basic oxides is an oxide which when dissolves with water gives off a basic solution.
Intermolecular forces: Attractive and repulsive forces between molecules/atoms
Dipole-Dipole (polar molecules): attraction between oppositely charged ends
Hydrogen Bonds (dipole-dipole force containing H): a type of dipole-dipole force, that is very strong
London Dispersion Forces (polar and non-polar): happens between all molecules
Intramolecular forces: tractive and repulsive forces within a molecule, compound, or polyatomic ion
VSEPR Theory: model used to predict 3-D molecular geometry based on the number of valence shell electron bond pairs
Lewis structures: drawn on paper in 2D, BUT in reality, these molecules are actually 3D entities
Molecular compound:
Ionization: new ions forming from a
neutral compound
IMMISCIBLE: liquids that do NOT mix
MISCIBLE: liquids that mix in ALL proportions
Molecular Formula: shows the exact number of each type of atom in the compound (subscripts are NOT reduced)
Mass multiplier: tells you the exact composition of a compound
Non-Polar Molecule: Equally/evenly distributed e-
Polar Molecule: Unequal distribution of e-
Molecular polarity: refers to the distribution of e- around the entire molecule
