によって Yukta Joshi 1年前.
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Children tend to rebel against parents rules and parenting skills.
Sometimes the parents don't care much about the child or have limited knowledge on how to raise a child.
Punitive in nature
Restrictive
Indirect positive control of children
Acceptance
Support
Warmth
Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.
When people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.
Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
A period between ages seven and eleven during which children gain a better understanding of mental operations.
During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people.
A child learns language(s).
Behaviours are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
A period between birth and age two during which an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities.
There are four stages to his theory:
Lastly, The Formal Operational Stage.
The Concrete Operational Stage.
The Preoperational Stage.
The Sensorimotor Stage.
Piaget's theory described stages that children pass through in the development of intelligence and formal thought processes.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.
The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets.
This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.
Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships.
Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. This is called an identity crisis.
During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.
Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.
Through social interaction, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.
Children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction.
Preschool years.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
They believed that learning to control one’s bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
Focuses on children developing a great sense of personal control.
Develops during early childhood.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for.
If a child successfully develops trust, they will feel safe in the world.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.
Fundamental to life.
From birth to age one year.
Erikson’s main element of personality development is the development of the ego identity.
Erikson believed that our ego is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
Each stage of development is concerned with becoming competent in a particular area in one’s life.
If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he called ego strength.
Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction.
Erikson’s theory focuses on the impact social experiences have across the lifespan.
Erikson believed that personality develops by way of stages.
If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage.
This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other interests.
The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.
The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls.
The child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections.
At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive.
If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a wasteful or destructive personality.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage.
Instead, some parents may punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.
Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to become competent, productive and creative adults.
Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the sexual drive was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting.
If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.
Each stage involves the satisfaction of a sexual desire and can later play a role in adult personality.
If a child does not successfully complete a stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a fixation that would later influence adult personality and behaviour.
Freud outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
6) Cooperative play: some organization enters children's play.
For example the playing has some goal and children often adopt roles and act as a group.
5) Associative play: now more interested in each other than the toys they are using.
This is the first category that involves strong social interaction between the children while they play.
4) Parallel play: the child mimics other children's play but doesn't actively engage with them.
For example they may use the same toy.
3) Onlooker play: child takes an interest in other children's play but does not join in.
May ask questions or just talk to other children, but the main activity is simply to watch.
2) Solitary play: the child is are completely engrossed in playing and does not seem to notice other children.
Most often seen in children between 2 and 3 years-old.
1) Unoccupied play: the child is relatively stationary and appears to be performing random movements with no apparent purpose.
A relatively infrequent style of play.
Through play, children learn and practice many basic social skills.
and learn how to role-play
how to lie
how to make friends
learn to interact with other children
They develop a sense of self
REFLECTING:
Rendering the message using your own words and sentence structure.
PARAPHRASING:
Rendering the message using similar words and similar phrase arrangement to the ones used by the speaker.
REPEATING:
Repeating the message using exactly the same words used by the speaker.
Remembering
Paying attention
Perceiving
Techniques of listening, interpreting, and reflecting are used to demonstrate Active Listening.
Reflecting:
It is restating the message using ones own words and sentence structure.
Interpreting:
In your mind, try and make meaning to what the person is trying to say. Identify feelings, needs and desires. If you have a pen and paper jot this information down to prepare you for the next step.
Listening:
Listen carefully to what the person is saying and do your best to interpret how they are feeling.
The ability to listen actively can improve personal relationships through reducing conflicts, strengthening cooperation, and fostering understanding.
The nurturing philosophy of non-violent parenting focuses on:
age-appropriate expectations of children's development.
appropriate family roles
discipline with dignity
empowerment
self-awareness
self-worth
the development of empathy
It is using words on a surface to create a message.
It is understood through body language or simply communicating without words.
This includes:
tone of voice
gestures
facial expressions
body posture
It is orally spoken and choosing exactly the right word increases the chances of your listener understanding the message you want to send.
Often the verbal and non-verbal messages don’t match.
Simultaneously sent messages that are contradictory in meaning.
Usually are the point or points conveyed.
Typically, this process is then reversed.
thoughts
feelings
ideas
information
