DETERMINISM
by Clare O'Leary
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, Saxony (now Germany) in 1646 to a mother who was morally and religiously inclined and a father who taught moral philosophy at Leipzig. He was well-educated from an early age, having learned Latin from the age of seven and Green by the age of 12. It was around the same time that Leibniz started to study books of Aristotle’s theories. He did not fully agree with Aristotle’s worldview, however, and started to come up with his own theories on the way the world works. He graduated from the University of Leipzig (the school at which his father had taught) with a bachelor’s degree upon writing his dissertation De Principio Individui, or On the Principle of the Individual. He then went on to earn a master’s degree in Philosophy, as well as a second bachelor’s degree – this time in Law. In 1714, he wrote Monodology, in which his well-known theory the Principle of Sufficient Reason was articulated. Leibniz’s ultimate goals were to reunite the Christian churches and to collate all human knowledge. Throughout his life, he wrote several more dissertations on various topics, invented the first calculator, and made enormous advancements in mathematic theory. Gottfried Leibniz died in Hannover, Hanover (now Germany) in 1716.
The Principle of Sufficient Reason
"By virtue of which we consider that we can find no true or existent fact, no true assertation, without there being a sufficient reason why it is thus and not otherwise, although most of the time these reasons cannot be known to us," (Monadology, sect. 32).
In his Principle of Sufficient Reason theory, Leibniz explains that all phenomena takes place for a sufficient reason. He believed that there was a reason why everything is as it is and not otherwise -- though we may not be able to identify or acknowledge that reason. The theory also states that God (which is the only universal, necessay phenomenon) has created a pre-established harmonious relationship between all things, and it is for this reason that the universe works as a giant machine, and everything within the machine -- gears, if you will -- have no choice but to work in accordance with the greater force of the machine.
Monads
According to Leibniz, "monads" are particles that cannot be broken apart. Everything is made up of combinations of these monads, and all monads were made by God. Leibniz's monads are eternal, and are constantly contributing to the unity that God has created. Monads are the ever-changing, divinely-created building blocks of everything in existence which follow the laws of causality. Therefore, if all things are aggregations of these monads, then it goes without saying that all things follow the laws of causality within the universe of God.
What is Determinism?
Determinism is an age-old philosophical idea that deals with the concept of free will -- or lack thereof -- in our world. A simple way of summarizing the concept would be to say that all phenomena, all living things, and all events are necessary effects of a sufficient cause in an antecedent state of the world. Although the theory of determinism has been around for many years, it has only been undergoing mathematic analysis since the 18th century -- and even after all of this time, it has not been proven whether or not life is governed by determinism, or even whether or not is possible to either prove or disprove the theory. Although the skeleton of all branches of Determinism is the idea that natural law (whether it be of biological, causal, or theological nature) determines how the world works, how living things interact with each other, and how things progress throughout life. Determinism is often split into two categories: Hard and Soft.
Soft Determinism is also sometimes referred to as Compatibilism, and is essentially the idea that the ways of the world are often predetermined, but that there are also freedoms and opportunities for choice within the predetermined restrictions of the world. Soft Determinists (most people) would agree with the theory that all things happen for a reason, or as a result as a cause and effect relationship, but do not necessarily believe that every single thing is entirely predetermined and beyond control. For example: a Soft Determinist, or a Compatibilist may believe that because it is a cold day, Steve would try and warm himself up. It is necessary that Steve warm himself up, but it is undetermined as to whether he sits in front of the fireplace, turns the heat up, or puts on a sweater.
Hard Determinism states that if an event occurs ("event" meaning any phenomena), it is necessarily occurring because an antecedent event occurred that ensures that the second event will occur. Therefore, no action or event, human or otherwise, occurs "freely" because all things are in accordance with the inescapeable causal laws that affect all things living and otherwise. Hard Determinists believe that humans cannot be held accountable for their actions because causal laws leave us no choice but to act in a certain way, according to the causal chain. Hard Determinism has been said to defy Christian beliefs because if humans are not in control of their actions and are only following a pattern of causality, then there are no real morals or ethics in our behaviour. If there are no morals or ethics, then there is no sin -- which is what much of Christianity is based on. There are many, many different sectors of determinism, depending on what the concept is being applied to. Here are three examples:
Theological Determinism is largely based on the idea that there is an existing god who has designed the world and everything within it. Because the god figure has created the world, he therefore can control and predict everything and everyone within it, leaving us with no choice but to follow the path that god has set out for us.
Causal Determinism is the branch of the theory that focuses mainly on cause and effect relationships. For instance: event 1 takes place as a result of event 0; event 1 then causes even 2 to take place, and so on and so forth. Causal Determinism states that everything is both a cause and effect of something else, and that this is a necessary and inevitable pattern within the workings of life and existence. Causal Determinists believe that because all things happen as a result of an antecedent thing, we have no choice (or free will) but to follow and to become a part of the pattern of life.
Biological Determinism deals mostly with the idea that we are biologically (genetically) made a certain way. In other words, all living things are how they are because their genetics are predetermined; our "free will" does not exist because it is only "free" within the very limited realm of our predetermined genetics. (In the nature vs. nurture debate, Biological Determinists would certainly favour the nurture side.)
