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The distance measured from one singular complete wave to the next within a wavelength.
The absolute lowest
The uppermost part of a wavelength (its peak)
Gamma Rays
X-rays
Ultraviolet Light (UV)
Visible Light
The Colour Spectrum
The colour spectrum visible to the human eye ranges from red to violet, (ROYGBIV). There are 3 colours true to the human eye, every other colour is our brain's conclusions of what it is seeing. These colours are red, green, and blue. True red and green make up yellow, true red and blue make magenta, and true blue and green make cyan.
Behaviour of Light
Refraction
Transmission
Absorb
Reflect
Infrared Light
Microwave
Radio
Substances that free hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Many bases have hydroxide ion(s) in their formula (OH-).
Acid
A substance that produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. Recognised by their formulas, with at least one (H) at the start.
Combustion
Fast reactions of a substance with oxygen to produce oxides
Burns hydrocarbons: gasoline, natural gas, furnaces, stoves
CxHy = O2 --> CO2 + H2O
Hydrocarbon + oxygen ---> carbon dioxide + water vapour + energy
Incomplete Combustion
Occurs when burning happens, but with not enough oxygen
Neutralisation
Acid + Base --> water + ionic compound (SALT)
H__ + ___OH --> H2O + MNm
To recognize a neutralization reaction:
Double displacement
The cations in two compounds trade places
AC + BD ---> AD + BC
CuBr2 + K2S --> CuS + 2KBr
Single displacement
One element displaces another element in a compound
A + BC --> AC + B
Li + MgCl --> LiCl + Mg
Decomposition
A compound breaks down into 2 elements (or simpler compounds)
AB --> A + B
2NF3 --> N2 + 3F2
Synthesis
2 elements combine to make a compound
A + B --> AB
H + Cl --> HCl
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that in any chemical reaction the mass remains the same before and after the reaction (reactants to products). Matter cannot be created nor destroyed.
Represents a chemical reaction.
Balanced equation
Includes coefficients in front of symbols so every atom is represented
ex. Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) --> H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)
Word equation
Uses words/names to represent the reaction
ex. Magnesium (s) + hydrochloric acid (aq) --> hydrogen (g) + magnesium chloride (aq)
Skeleton equation
Uses chemical formulas/symbols to represent the reaction
ex. Mg (s) + HCl (aq) --> H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)
A positively or negatively charged atom due to the loss or gain of electrons.
Cations = positively charged
Anions = negatively charged
Molecular compounds
Naming molecular compounds
2.The ending of the second nonmetal changes to "ide"
Ionic compounds
Formed from a cation (+) and an anion (-), usually a metal and nonmetal.
Polyatomic ions/compounds
Recognised by the formula having more than 2 elements or the name ends in "ate" or "ite", or some other name.
Finding formulas
From the name:
If the metal is multivalent
Naming ionic compounds
If the metal is multivalent
Properties
Animal Organ Systems
11 systems of the human body
Lymphatic
White blood cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vessels.
Immunity
Novel Coronavirus
Belongs to the family coronaviridae. Originates from an animal. Club-shaped proteins give a crown-like appearance (coronal).
COVID-19 + Systems
Some people will develop Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome with the infection.
Lung cells become inflamed making it harder to breathe. Alveoli become filled with fluid, making gas exchange harder, and therefore exhausting other cells as they are not getting enough oxygen.
The virus enters the cell via the ACE-2 receptor, and this receptor is 100x more occurring in the gastrointestinal tract, making vomiting and diarrhoea common symptoms.
Infection of the cell
SARS-CoV-2 infects the cell via the ACE-2 receptor
When COVID-19 infects the cell, it is more easily spread than the common cold, is a more serious illness, and has a longer incubation period before any syptoms appear during which the virus can still be spread.
Reproductive
Respective to males versus females
Excretory
Skin, kidney, bladder, ureter, urethra
Nervous
Brain, nerves, spinal cord
Endocrine
Glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes
Circulatory
The Circulatory System
Transportation path of the body. Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removes carbon dioxide and wastes. Also distributes heat to body parts and fights against disease.
Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood to the body. Heart contracts, blood is pushed out of the heart. Heart relaxes, blood flows back in the heart. Sits in the chest cavity between the lungs, about the sized of your clenched fist.
Blood vessels
The pathway of blood
Blood
Approx. 4-6L in your body
55% plasma component: consists of water, proteins, nutrients, wastes. Maintains temperature, fights against disease, transports vitamins.
45% cellular component: red blood cells carry oxygen and then remove carbon dioxide; live 100-120 days. White blood cells fight foreign invaders, guard against infection; live for years. Platelets are proteins that release a blood clotting factor (forms scabs).
Respiratory
Nose, mouth, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, diaphragm
Digestive
The Digestive System
Purpose of breaking down food into nutrients to then supply cells with necessary nutrients for growth, maintenance, and repair
Muscular
All muscle tissue, tendons, ligaments
Skeletal
Bones, cartilage
Integumentary
Skin, hair, nails, glands
Plant Organ Systems
Shoot System
All above ground (stem, leaves, flower, and fruit)
Xylem pulls nutrients up from the roots through the stem via xylem.
Transpiration occurs as water evaporates from the leaf and therefore pulls up water molecules.
Root System
All below ground, the root system stores water/nutrients, absorbs, and transports from the ground to the stem.
Different tissues formed together to carry out a function. Includes lungs, skin, heart, etc.
Flower
Reproductive organ of the plant (stamen, pistil, ovary, petal, sepal)
Leaf
Location of photosynthesis/cellular respiration within the plant. Photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide and water (absorbed via the root system to the stem) into sugar and oxygen.
Stem
Serves to transport nutrients from the roots of the plant to the rest of the plant, and from the plant back down to the roots once photosynthesis occurs within the leaf. Vascular tissue performs this function, xylem up, phloem down.
Roots
The roots anchor the plant, and stores food for the plant, as well as absorbing nutrient necessary from the ground itself.
Skin
Lungs
Heart
Nervous tissue
Inputs signals, responds, causes reactions.
Muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle tissue
Heart specific muscle tissue, assists the heart in contracting and relaxing to pump blood to the rest of the body (circulatory system).
Smooth muscle tissue
Responsible for involuntary muscle movements, such as peristalsis, digestion within the stomach (i.e. walls), and the passing of nutrients through the intestines.
Skeletal muscle tissue
Responsible for voluntary movement of the body
Connective tissue
Fills space, makes up all other sorts of components to the body including blood, bones, ligaments, tendons, fats, etc.
Epithelial tissue
Protects and lines structures of the organism.
Vascular tissue
Transports nutrients and other materials throughout the plant. (xylem up and phloem down)
Ground Tissue
Provides structure and support to the organism.
Epidermal tissue
Protective layer on the outside of plant organs.
Meristematic tissue
Tissue made up of unspecialized stem cells with the purpose of growth within the plant.
All cells start the same and then differentiate into specialised cells. Differentiation occurs so cells are assigned a specific function.
Stem cells
Unspecialised cells that have the potential to differentiate to become any cell and undergo any function. Scientists are interested in stem cell studies because of the potential to genetically differentiate stem cells to then repair and replace damaged tissue, such as in a cancer case.
Interphase
Mitosis
Cytokineses
Apoptosis
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the controlled death of a cell. A cell regularly undergoes 50-60 cell divisions before apoptosis occurs. Takes place when the cell can no longer preform its function or is no longer needed.
Cancer cells
A cell in which the genetic instructions (DNA) have been mutated and the cell loses control over it's division. These cells are essentially "immortal" because they do not stop dividing regardless of damage to the cells.
Tumours
A mass growth of cells
Malignant
Dangerous and could result in the death of the organism
Benign
Not dangerous to the organism (not cancerous)
Cell division
Cell division takes place for the purpose of growth of an organism, reparation of damaged cells/tissues, replacement of old cells, and reproduction.
Cell division begins with Interphase. During interphase, the nucleus of a cell is visible. The purpose of interphase during the cell cycle is:
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
The organelles of the animal cell include:
-Cell membrane, separates the outside of the cell from the inside, controls movement of things in and out of the cell
-Nucleus, acts like a container; holds DNA and the nucleolus inside, control centre of the cell
-Chromatin: DNA that stores instructions for the cell's function
-Nucleolus, builds ribosomes
-Cytoplasm, jelly supporting organelles
-Endoplasmic Reticulum, transports materials through the cell
- Ribosomes, manufactures proteins that can be used in and outside of the cell
-Mitochondria, creates energy for the cell (site of cellular respiration)
-Golgi bodies, packages useful materials and sends them outside of the cell
-Lysosome, breaks down food, wastes, and other materials (cells break down if lysosome explodes)
-Vacuole, contains water, food wastes, and other materials that help maintain the shape
Organelles of the plant cell include:
-Cell wall, specific to the plant cell, provides support and strengthens the cell and it's shape
-Cell membrane, separates the outside of the cell from the inside, controls movement of things in and out of the cell
-Nucleus, acts like a container; holds DNA and the nucleolus inside, control center of the cell
-Chromatin: DNA that stores instructions for the cell's function
-Nucleolus, builds ribosomes
-Cytoplasm, jelly supporting organelles
-Endoplasmic Reticulum, transports materials through the cell
- Ribosomes, manufactures proteins that can be used in and outside of the cell
-Mitochondria, creates energy for the cell (site of cellular respiration)
-Golgi bodies, packages useful materials and sends them outside of the cell
-Lysosome, breaks down food, wastes, and other materials (cells break down if lysosome explodes)
-Central vacuole, contains water, food wastes, and other materials that help maintain the shape
-Chloroplast, makes food for a plant cell (location of photosynthesis within the plant cell)
The cell theory states;
-All living things are made up of cells
-Cells are the smallest working units of all living things
-All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division
Base
Provides a stable platform for the microscope
Lamp
Supplies the light that passes through the specimen
Stage
Supports the slide for observation
Stage clips
Holds the slide in position on stage
Revolving nose piece
Fine adjustment knob
Sharpens an image
Coarse adjustment knob
Moves the stage up and down to focus on the specimen
Diaphragm
Allows light to pass through to the specimen; focuses light on the specimen
Arm
Holds the tube in place and is used to carry the microscope
Objective lenses
Magnify specimen, three lenses are usually 4x, 10x, 40x
Eyepiece/occular lens
Magnifies the specimen, usually by 10x
Always use pencil!
Solid lines (no sketching)
Darker and lighter areas are contrasted using stippling
Don't cross label lines, labels to one side
Earth's method of controlling Sun's radiation
Natural way for the Earth to stay warm. Normally, the amount of gases in the atmosphere is enough to moderate climate.
Water vapour
Water absorbs heat, more water vapours in atmosphere = warmer temperatures, makes more clouds (may have reflective effect)
Nitrous oxides
Naturally produced via the nitrogen cycle
Methane
Naturally occurring in low oxygenated areas ex. swamplands
Carbon Dioxide
Released naturally via the carbon cycle (slow process), released in natural forest fires.
Resulting from the influence of humans on nature;
Earth naturally keeps the greenhouse gasses in balance so that the atmosphere keeps the temperature ideal for the biosphere, human activities increase these levels.
Economic effect
Ex. In light of the climate cause, many governments choose to impose carbon taxes. In addition, prices of hydrocarbons (i.e. gas/petrol) will increase moving into the future, which not every household can afford.
Social effect
In impoverished countries, often 3rd-world countries, water access becomes increasingly limited as Day Zero approaches continuously. Water access is often tasked to the women, decreasing the amount of women who are completely educated within the countries. A lower rate of education has been shown to increase the amount of accidental/unplanned pregnancies as well as the average age a woman gives birth at decreasing. These factors will contribute to increasing populations.
Physical effect
Ex. Due to increased levels of precipitation and warmer temperatures melting snow quicker, flooding and water erosion become more of a common occurrence with more detrimental effects.
Adaptation vs. Mitigation
Mitigation
Adaptation
Sink
Something that takes out said element/compounds from the atmophere ex. carbon sink
Source
Something that contains and releases said element/compounds into the atmosphere ex. carbon source
Liquid water, water vapour, and ice
Rock, mantle, Earth's crust
Gases surrounding Earth
Living organisms and ecosystems
Environmental conditions occurring in a particular place and time.
Average weather conditions in a region over long periods of time. (ex. average precipitation)
