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A transport vesicle carries proteins to the plasma membrane for secretion
-Both processes synthesis is completed on free ribosomes
chloroplasts
peroxisomes
nucleus
Summary:
mRNA--> ribosome-> rough endoplasmic reticulum-->Golgi apparatus--> Lysosome--> Exocytosis
An SRP binds to the signal peptide, halting synthesis momentarily
The SRP binds to a receptor protein in the ER membrane, part of a protein complex that forms a pore.
The SRP leaves, and polypeptide synthesis resumes, with simultaneous translocation across the membrane
The signal peptide is cleaved by an enzyme in the receptor protein complex
The rest of the completed polypeptide leaves the ribosome and folds into its final conformation.
Translation comes to an end; Occurs when a stop codon in the mRNA enters the A site. Proteins called release factors recognize stop codons (fit into p site).
Poly-A Polymerase Adds 100-200 A's to 3' End Using ATP
Cleavage by Ribonuclease at 3' End
In Wake DNA Reforms Double Helix
Transcription Factor Must Recognize Before Binding of RNA Polymerase II
Additional Transcription Factors Bind with RNA Polymerase to Form Transcription Initation Complex
About 25 Nucleotides Upstream from Transcription Start Point
snRNA + Spliceosome + Other Proteins
Splice Together Ends of Introns to Form a Ring and Join Exons Together, Introns Form Ring Separate from mRNA
Cut-Out Intron
Spliceosome Components
DNA Unwinds and RNA Synthesis Begins
RNA Splicing
Alternate Splicing
Splice Together Exons But Can Leave Out 1 or More to Produce Different Proteins During Translation Through Different Exon Sequences
Introns Cut Out/Exons Spliced Together
Exons = Coding Segment
50-250 Adenine Nucleotides Added to 3' End
Poly-A Tail
Polyadenylation Signal
Protein Coding Segments
Start/Stop Codons
5' Cap
Modified Guanine Nucleotide Added to 5' End
Also has DNA Polymerase I in Bacterial Replication
Remove RNA Nucleotides from Primer and Replaces with DNA Nucleotides at 5' End
DNA Polymerase III
Polymerization 5' --> 3'
Bind to RNA Primer
Bonds Nucleotides to Polymer
Removes 2 Phosphate from Nucleotide
2 Inorganic Phosphate Produced
Forms Phosphate Group/Backbone
Primase
Form Okazaki Fragments of Lagging Strand
Synthesize RNA Primers 5' Leading Strand
SSB
Stabilize Unwound Parental Strands
Topoisomerase
Breaks, Swivels, and Rejoins DNA Ahead of Replication Fork Relieving Strain from Unwinding
Helicase
Unwinds and Separates Parental DNA
Cytosine
Uracil (RNA)
Thymine (DNA)
1 Nitrogen Ring
Guanine
Adenine
2 Nitrogen Rings
Proton motive force
Pi
ADP
Chemiosmosis
Redox reaction: After CO2 release, the resulting four- carbon molecule is oxidized (reducing NAD+), then made reactive by addition of CoA
There is an addition of a phosphate to Succinyl CoA which causes GTP to be released and bind with ADP which forms Succinate
Redox reaction: Succinate is oxidized; FAD is reduced
Addition of H20 to Fumarate
Malate
Redox reaction: Malate is oxidized, NAD is reduced
inside mitochondrion
Enolase causes a double bond to form in the substrate by extracting a water molecule, yielding phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) , compound with high potential energy
Phosphate group is transferred from PEP to ADP (second example of substrate- level phosphorylation) forming pyruvate
Aldolase cleaves the sugar molecule into two different three-carbon sugars
6 carbon sugar splits into two molecules of 3 carbon each forming DHAP and G3P. Eventually DHAP converts G3P , so at the end we have 2 molecules of G3P from 1 molecule of glucose
Smooth Muscle Cell
Cell Relax
Blood Vessel Dilation
Increased Blood Flow to Skeletal Muscle
Liver Cell
Glycogen Breakdown
Glucose Release
Blood Glucose Increase
Forms Dimer
6 ATP Activate Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
Phosphorylated Dimer
Active Relay Protein 2
Cellular Response 2
Active Relay Protein 1
Cellular Response 1
Active Protein Kinase 1
Active Protein Kinase 2
Phosphorylated Protein
Active Protein Enters Nucleus
Binds to Gene as Transcription Factor
mRNA Transcribed
Leaves Nucleus for Ribosome
Ribosome Creates Protein as Response
Activated GPCR
Binds to G Protein
Activates G Protein
GTP
Hydrolyzed to GDP
Binds to Adenylyl Cyclase
Active Adenylyl Cyclase
Converts ATP to cAMP (Second Messenger)
Activates Protein
Cellular Response
G3P (Sugar)
3 phosphoglycerate
Cyclic
No NADPH
Noncyclic
NADPH:
Chemosmosis
ATP
H20
O2
Alpha Helix
Cytoplasmic C-Terminus
Extracellular N-Termiinus
Attach to CS and ECM
Cell Recognition
Signal
Enzymatic
Bulk Transport
Endocytic
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
Exocytic
Active Transport
Cotransport
Indirect Transport of Other Molecules
Concentration Gradient
Concentration from Low to High
Requires Energy Input
Sodium/Potassium Pump
Ion Channels
Ungated
Gated
Voltage
Ligand
Stretch
Open Potassium Pump
Hyperpolarization
Open Sodium Pump
Depolarization
Passive Transport
Osmosis
Water from Higher to Lower Concentration
Diffusion
Facilitated
Aided by Proteins
Hydrophobic Outside
Hydrophilc Inside
Channel
Carrier
No Energy Input
Non-Covalent Bonds Between Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Surface Units
Cilia helps for prokaryotic cell movement.
The nucleoid is within the cytoplasm and contains bacterial DNA. The nucleoid regulates the growth, reproduction, and function of prokaryotic cells. Nucleoid is made of DNA, RNA, and proteins. The nucleoid has an irregular shape.
Plasmids are smaller circles of DNA which is transferrable between cells.
Flagella help bacteria move. Flagella may be scattered over the entire surface or concentrated at one or both ends
The cell wall is outside of the plasma membrane. The cell wall is made of peptidoglycan which is a polymer of modified sugars crossl
The plasma membrane is made of phospholipids and proteins. The plasma membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell, provides protection to the cell, and is also the site of many metabolic reactions (example: cellular respiration and photosynthesis).
Glycocalyx: Capsule or Slime Layers. The cell wall is made of many bacteria and is surrounded by a sticky layer made of polysaccharides or proteins. If it's dense and well defined then it's a capsule and if it diffuses is a slime layer. Both sticky outer layers help bacteria to stick (adhere) to a substrate or other bacteria, Sticky outer layers protect against dehydration and some capsules protect bacteria from attacks by the host immune system.
Fimbriae are short-hair-like projections on the surface of bacteria that is used to stick to the substrate or to each other.
Phosphate Groups
Fatty Acids
Microtubules are the thickest of the 3 components which contain tubulin polymers. Microtubules are hollow rods made of a protein called tubulin which there are 2 types (alpha and beta). The microtubules consist of a wall with 13 columns of tubulin molecules. Microtubules grow in length by adding tubulin dimers. They are very dynamic. For example, the dimers can be removed to build a microtubule somewhere else in the cell where its needed. The function of microtubules is the maintenance of cell shape, cell motility, chromosome movement in cell division, and organelle movement.
Microfilaments (Actin filaments, Actin myosis) are the thinnest component of the cytoskeleton. Microfilaments are at the base of the membrane inside the cell which provides a structural role, changes in cell shape, muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming (plant cells), cell motility, and cell division (animal cells). Microfilaments help provide support to the plasma membrane and help bear any tension imposed on the membrane from the outside. The structure of microfilaments is two intertwined strands of actin, thin solid rods mode of protein.
Intermediate Filaments (fibers with diameters middle range) main function is that helps the maintenance of cell shape, anchorage of the nucleus and certain other organelles; formation of the nucleus lamina. Intermediate filaments are the intermediate of the diameter of microtubules and microfilaments. They are very diverse and made of different proteins such as keratin. The structure is made of fibrous proteins coiled into cables, fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables.
Cytoskeletons' relationship to eukaryotic cells:
The cytoskeleton's relationship to eukaryotic cells is that it maintains the cell's shape and it is the anchorage for many organelles.
Cytoskeleton: reinforces cells' shape, functions in cell movement, and components are made up of proteins.
Smooth ER relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
The Smooth ER's relationship to the endoplasmic reticulum is that its part of the ER and helps with lipid synthesis modification.
Rough ER relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
Rough ER's relationship to the endoplasmic reticulum is that its part of the ER and helps with protein synthesis.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the nuclear envelope and help the production and storage of proteins.
The Rough ER has bound ribosomes that separate glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates), distribute transport vesicles, and is generally considered the "membrane factory" of the cell. The Rough ER produces proteins, produces enzymes, and surrounds a variety of proteins.
The smooth ER synthesizes lipids, metabolized carbohydrates, detoxifies drugs and poisons, and stores calcium in muscle cells.
Central vacuoles are present in older plant cells which are eukaryotic cells and they include storage breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules, and enlargement of vacuoles.
Contractile Vacuoles are found in many freshwater protists, and pump excess water out of cells.
Food vacuoles are formed when cells engulf food or other particles.
Vacuoles Relationship to Golgi Apparatus:
Vacuoles' relationship with the Golgi apparatus is that it is derived from the Golgi and gives rise to the organelle.
Vacuoles' Relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Vacuoles' Relationship with the ER is that it is derived from it and membrane/ proteins produced by the ER move via transport vessels.
Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi Apparatus.
Lysosome Phagocytosis is when enzymes contain active hydrolytic enzymes which fuse with food vacuoles and hydrolytic enzymes digest the food particles.
Lysosome Autophagy is when a damaged organelle becomes surrounded by a membrane so it becomes a vesicle. The lysosome enzymes digest the inner membrane and all the materials of the damaged organelle and release them into the cytosol for reuse.
Lysosomes' relationship to Golgi Apparatus:
Lysosomes' relationship to Golgi Apparatus is that the Golgi Apparatus receives protein enzymes from the ER, which are packed in a vesicle in the Golgi Apparatus, processed, and then pinched off as a lysosome.
Lysosomes are digestive organelles where macromolecules are hydrolyzed, they are membrane-bound organelles packed with enzymes that are used for hydrolysis to break covalent bonds.
Flagellums' Relationship to the plasma membrane:
The Flagellums' relationship to the plasma membrane is that it also extends from the plasma membrane.
The flagellum is a motility structure present in some animal cells, which are eukaryotic cells, composed of a cluster of microtubules with an extension of the plasma membrane.
Cilia's relationship to the plasma membrane :
Cilia's relationship to the plasma membrane is that cilia extend from the plasma membrane.
Cilia help with eukaryotic cells' body movement.
Golgi Apparatus relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum:
The Golgi Apparatus' relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum is that it receives proteins and lipids (fats) from the ER.
Golgi Apparatus is active in the synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products, stores proteins, and make digestive enzyme for lysosomes.
Plasma Membrane relationship to Eukaryotic Cells:
The plasma membrane's relationship to eukaryotic cells is that it provides protection.
The plasma membrane encloses the cell.
Mitonchondria Relationship to the Eukaryotic cell:
The mitochondria' relationship to the eukaryotic cell is the powerhouse of the cell because they generate energy (ATP).
The Mitochondria are the power house of the cell it produces ATP and is the main site of cellular respiration.
Peroxisomes' relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Peroxisomes' relationship to the Endoplasmic Reticulum is that peroxisomes emerge from the ER.
Peroxisomes detoxify alcohol in the liver and break down fatty acids and amino acids.
Cytoplasm/ Cytosol Relationship to Eukaryotic Cells:
The cytoplasm is present in all eukaryotic cells that carry out complex metabolic reactions and provides support to the organelle's structures.
The cytoplasm is a gelatin-like substance that provides support for organelles to stay in place and it has structural fibers.
Bound Ribosomes are attached outside of Rough ER or nuclear envelope, making proteins that are either inserted in the membrane or secreted out of the cell.
Free Ribosomes are located in the cytosol, enzymes that catalyze first steps of sugar breakdown.
Free Ribosome's relationship to Ribosomes:
Free Ribosome's relationship to ribosomes is that its one type of ribosome based on its location in the cytosol.
Bound relationship to Ribosomes:
Bound Ribosome's relationship to ribosomes is that its the second type of ribosome that is based on being in the Rough ER and the nuclear membrane.
Ribosomes are complexes of ribosomal RNA and proteins, the function in cells is to make proteins. Ribosomes have two locations in cells: cytosol or Rough ER and nuclear envelope.
Connections
Nucleus Relationship to Eukaryotic Cells:
The relationship between the nucleus and eukaryotic cells is that all eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus where they store their DNA and control gene expression.
Nucleus Relationship to the nucleolus, nuclear envelope/membrane, chromatin, centrioles, and nuclear lamina (TEM)
The nucleus connects to the nucleolus, nuclear envelope/ membrane, chromatin, centrioles, and nuclear lamina (TEM) because the nucleus has inside all of these organelles.
Nucleolus Relationship to Nucleus:
The relationship between the nucleolus and nucleus is that the nucleolus is located in the nucleus and assembles ribosomes in the nucleus.
Nuclear Envelope/ Membrane Relationship to Nucleus:
The relationship between the nuclear envelope and the nucleus is that it is a structural framework/ support system for the nucleus.
Nuclear Envelope/ Membrane Relationship to Nuclear Lamina (TEM)
The relationship between the nuclear lamina and the nuclear envelope is that the nuclear lamina provides support to the nuclear membrane so it won't collapse and die.
Chromatin Relationship to Nucleus:
The relationship between chromatin and the nucleus is that the DNA of the nucleus helps make up chromatin which helps make chromosomes when cells divide.
Centrioles' Relationship to Nucleus:
The relationship between centrioles and the nucleus is that the centrioles determine the position of the nucleus.
Centriole's Relationship to Chromatin:
The relationship between centrioles and chromatin both help the process of cell division in the nucleus.
The nucleus stores DNA and controls gene expression.
Positive Charge
Negative Charge
OH, NH2, SH, CO
H, CH, CH2, CH3, H2C, H3C
ar
Purines
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Pyrimidines
Uracil (C)
r
RNA Only (Replace Thymine)
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
mRNA
Gene Expression (Protein Synthesis)
Fatty Acid (Palmitic Acid)
Unsaturated
Cis
Create C Double Bonds (Kink)
Phospholipids
Hydrophobic Tail
Polar/Hydrophilic Head
Same Side H
Trans
Alternating H
Liquid
Saturated
Solid
Hydrophobic (C-H Bonds. Nonpolar)
Glycerol
Chitin
Cellulose
Dextran
Straight
Branched
Glycogen
Starch
Amylopectin
