Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization. Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. This soul – the spirit or true "self" of every person, is called the ātman. The soul is believed to be eternal. According to the monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit.The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life. Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls.] They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is called Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Deva or Devi, and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.
Quranism (Arabic branch that holds the Qur'an to be the only canonical text in Islam, as opposed to hadith and often sunnah collections. This is in contrast to orthodox Muslims, who consider hadiths essential to the Islamic faith. Quranistic movements include Abdullah Chakralawi's Ahle Qur'an and Rashad Khalifa's United Submitters International.
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History of hinduism
Hinduism is an Indian Dharma, or a way of life, widely practiced in South Asia. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world,[note 2] and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal tradition", or the "eternal way", beyond human history. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots[8][note 6] and no founder. This "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).
Holidays of Hinduism
Diwali
Diwali, from the Sanskrit word Dīpãvali, meaning "row of lights" is a Hindu festival of lights lasting five days. For many Hindus, Diwali is also New Year's Eve. Diwali is held on the final day of the Vikram calendar, a type of Hindu calendar followed by North Indians.
Holi
Holi (also called Holaka or Phagwa) is an annual festival celebrated on the day after the full moon in the Hindu month of Phalguna (early March). It celebrates spring, commemorates various events in Hindu mythology and is time of disregarding social norms and indulging in general merrymaking. Holi is probably the least religious of Hindu holidays.
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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_deities
Sign of the Hinduism
подтема
• Hinduism
Hinduism is an Indian Dharma, or a way of life, widely practiced in South Asia. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal tradition", or the "eternal way", beyond human history. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).
Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Śruti ("heard") and Smṛti ("remembered"). These texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas. Sources of authority and eternal truths in its texts play an important role, but there is also a strong Hindu tradition of questioning authority in order to deepen the understanding of these truths and to further develop the tradition.
Etymology
The word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit root Sindhu, the name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and Northern India).According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)", more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I (550–486 BCE).The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang, and 14th-century Persian text Futuhu's-salatin by 'Abd al-Malik Isami.
Thapar states that the word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta – equivalent to Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanianinscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. The Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus".
Definitions
Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it". Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life". From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion.
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.
Typology
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division
• into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva),Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as same). Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme. Other notable characteristics include a belief in existence of ātman (soul, self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living).
Beliefs
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action, intent and consequences), Moksha (liberation from samsara or liberation in this life), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).
Artha (livelihood, wealth)
Main article: Artha
Artha is objective and virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The Artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.
Kāma (sensual pleasure)
Main article: Kama
Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations. In Hinduism, Kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing Dharma, Artha and Moksha.
Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from samsara)
Main article: Moksha
Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) is the ultimate, most important
Mahashivaratri (Shiva Ratri)
Mahashivaratri (also called Shiva Ratri) is the Great Festival of Shiva. It is held on the 14th day of the dark half of the lunar month of Phalguna. Mahashivaratri is especially important to Saivites (devotees of Shiva), but it is celebrated by most Hindus.
Hinduism is an Indian Dharma, or a way of life, widely practiced in South Asia. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal tradition", or the "eternal way", beyond human history.Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).
Name Means
Persian hindu, Sanskrit sindhu, literally "river," meaning "of the Indus Valley" or "Indian." First used by British writers in the 19th century.
Adherents
1 billion
Beliefs
One Supreme Reality (Brahman) manifested in many gods and goddesses. Reincarnation based on karma.
Practices
Yoga, meditation, worship (puja), devotion to a god or goddess, pilgrimage to holy cities, live according to one's dharma (purpose/ role).
Main Holidays
Holi, Diwali, Mahashivaratri
Texts
Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, etc.
Symbols
lotus, swastika, trisula, om
https://youtu.be/lmV2Wd8bOcc
Traditional food of Islam
Universal Religions
Two branches of Buddhism: Mahayana("the broad way") and Hinayana (narrow path). Especially numerous adherents of the directions having the basis the Tibetan Mahayana. These directions are collectively called" Northern " Buddhism (because it is common to the North of India). Hinayana are set mainly in the South-Eastern countries and has been called "southern" Buddhism.
In our country Buddhism, or rather its kind-Lamaism, was officially recognized in Russia in 1741, by the decree of Empress Elizabeth. Since then, it has been a traditional creed, for example, in Buryatia, Tuva, or Kalmykia. However, in recent years, Buddhist communities have emerged in Moscow, St. Petersburg and many other major cities of Russia.
Buddism
History of Buddism
The origin of Buddhism points to Siddhartha Guatama, the historical Buddha, who was born in Lumbini (present-day Nepal) during the 5th century BC.
Siddhartha Gautama lived during a time of profound social changes in India. The authority of the Vedic religion was being challenged by a number of new religious and philosophical views. This religion had been developed by a nomadic society roughly a millennium before Siddhartha’s time. But things were different in the 5th BC, as society was no longer nomadic: agrarian settlements had replaced the old nomad caravans and evolved into villages, then into towns and finally into cities. Under the new urban context, a considerable sector of Indian society was no longer satisfied with the old Vedic faith. Siddhartha Gautama was one of the many critics of the religious establishment.
After Siddhartha Gautama passed away, the community he founded slowly evolved into a religion-like movement and the teachings of Siddhartha became the basis of Buddhism. The historical evidence suggests that Buddhism had a humble beginning.
By the 3rd century BC, the picture we have of Buddhism is very different. The Mauryan Indian emperor Ashoka the Great (304–232 BC) turned Buddhism into the state religion of India. He provided a favourable social and political climate for the acceptance of Buddhist ideas, encouraged Buddhist missionary activity, and even generated among Buddhist monks certain expectations of patronage and influence on the machinery of political decision making.
Clothing in Islam
Men's and women's clothes
Clothing in Islam. Women's clothing should cover the whole body, except the face and hands. A man must cover the area from navel to the knees.
Clothes in any case should not fit, the fabric should be dense and not to Shine through any part of the body.
Women's clothes must not resemble men's, but also not to recall the clothes of other peoples and Nations.
A Muslim should not try to stand out by using clothes, but you can't look untidy and dirty.
Clothes should not occupy a person's thoughts. Things that are symbols of religion and similar things of the Gentiles (robes, cross). Such clothing attests to spiritual weakness, uncertainty, and weak faith.
Men are not allowed to wear silk clothing (meaning natural silk) and with the addition of gold thread. Women like things to wear is permitted.
Two branches of Buddhism: Mahayana("the broad way") and Hinayana (narrow path). Especially numerous adherents of the directions having the basis the Tibetan Mahayana. These directions are collectively called" Northern " Buddhism (because it is common to the North of India). Hinayana are set mainly in the South-Eastern countries and has been called "southern" Buddhism.
In our country Buddhism, or rather its kind-Lamaism, was officially recognized in Russia in 1741, by the decree of Empress Elizabeth. Since then, it has been a traditional creed, for example, in Buryatia, Tuva, or Kalmykia. However, in recent years, Buddhist communities have emerged in Moscow, St. Petersburg and many other major cities of Russia.
Hinduism
Islamic branches
Later branches
Salafism and Wahhabism
Quranism
Mahdavia
Liberal Muslims
Islamism
Islamism is a set of political ideologies, derived from various fundamentalist views, which hold that Islam is not only a religion but a political system that should govern the legal, economic and social imperatives of the state. Many Islamists do not refer to themselves as such and it is not a single particular movement. Religious views and ideologies of its adherents vary, and they may be Sunni Islamists or Shia Islamists depending upon their beliefs. Islamist groups include groups such as Al-Qaeda, the organizer of the September 11, 2001 attacks and perhaps the most prominent; and the Muslim Brotherhood, the largest and perhaps the oldest. Although violence is often employed by some organizations, most Islamist movements are nonviolent.
Gülen / Hizmet movement
The Gülen movement, usually referred to as the Hizmet movement, established in the 1970s as an offshoot of the Nur Movement and led by the Turkish Islamic scholar and preacher Fethullah Gülen in Turkey, Central Asia, and in other parts of the world, is active in education, with private schools and universities in over 180 countries as well as with many American charter schools operated by followers. It has initiated forums for interfaith dialogue. The Cemaat movement's structure has been described as a flexible organizational network. Movement schools and businesses organize locally and link themselves into informal networks. Estimates of the number of schools and educational institutions vary widely; it appears there are about 300 Gülen movement schools in Turkey and over 1,000 schools worldwide.
Ahmadiyya movement
The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in India in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who claimed to be the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ"), the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims and a "subordinate" prophet to Muhammad whose job was to restore the Sharia given to Muhammad by guiding or rallying disenchanted Ummah back to Islam and thwart attacks on Islam by its opponents. The followers are divided into two groups, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam, the former believing that Ghulam Ahmad was a non-law bearing prophet and the latter believing that he was only a religious reformer though a prophet in an allegorical sense. Ahmadis consider themselves Muslims and claim to practice the pristine form of Islam as re-established with the teachings of Ghulam Ahmad.
African-American movements
Many slaves brought from Africa to the Western hemisphere were Muslim. Although it is thought that the Islam of slaves did not survive past the 1920,the early twentieth century saw the rise of distinct Islamic movements within the African-American community, such as the Moorish Science Temple of America and the Nation of Islam. They sought to ascribe Islamic heritage to African-Americans, thereby giving much emphasis on racial aspects (see Black nationalism). These Black Muslim movements often differed greatly in doctrine from mainstream.
Kharijite Islam
Kharijite (literally, "those who seceded") is a general term embracing a variety of Muslim sects which, while originally supporting the Caliphate of Ali, later on fought against him and eventually succeeded in his martyrdom while he was praying in the mosque of Kufa. While there are few remaining Kharijite or Kharijite-related groups, the term is sometimes used to denote Muslims who refuse to compromise with those with whom they disagree.
The major Kharijite sub-sect today is the Ibadi. The sect developed out of the 7th century Islamic sect of the Kharijites. While Ibadi Muslims maintain most of the beliefs of the original Kharijites, they have rejected the more aggressive methods.
Shia Islam
Shia Islam (شيعة Shia, sometimes Shi'a; adjective "Shia"/Shi'ite) is the second-largest denomination of Islam, comprising 10–13% of the total Muslim population in the world. Shia Muslims, though a minority in the Muslim world, constitute the majority of the Muslim populations in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain and Azerbaijan as well as a plurality in Kuwait, Yemen and Lebanon. In addition to believing in the authority of the Qur'an and teachings of Muhammad, Shia believe that Muhammad's family, the Ahl al-Bayt (the "People of the House"), including his descendants known as Imams, have special spiritual and political authority over the community and believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rashidun caliphs.
Sunni Islam
Sunni Muslims are the largest denomination of Islam and are known as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h or simply as Ahl as-Sunnah. The word Sunni comes from the word sunnah, which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Therefore, "Sunni" refers to those who follow or maintain the sunnah of Muhammad. In many countries, overwhelming majorities of Muslims are Sunnis, so that they simply refer to themselves as "Muslims" and do not use the Sunni label.
The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim ummah (community) before his death, and after an initial period of confusion, a group of his most prominent companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close friend and a father-in-law, as the first caliph of Islam. Sunni Muslims regard the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman Ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib) as "al-Khulafā’ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly Guided Caliphs." Sunnis also believe that the position of caliph may be attained democratically, on gaining a majority of the votes, but after the Rashidun, the position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule because of the divisions started by the Umayyads and others. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, there has never been another caliph as widely recognized in the Muslim world.
в
The place of worship
Muslims pay great attention to the construction of mosques, and masters lovingly spread the mosaic, build high, vaulted ceilings, covering them with paintings and calligraphy, make carpets, which cover the floors of mosques. What examples of Muslim art can be found by going inside?
First, we list the main components of most modern mosques in the world. Going to the mosque, you will certainly go to the prayer hall, covered with carpets, sometimes the floor is covered with stone, plaster, or it is just earthy.
Some of those who came first will use the room for ablutions (wudu) — in which are located public toilets, showers, sinks. The need to do before entering the mosque the ritual ablution resulted in specially designated rooms, spaces outside of the mosque and fountains in the courtyard, called "houses".
In the prayer hall you can see the mihrab is focused on the niche of Kaaba (flat, contingent or concave), covered by the arch, a small arch or a conch and inserted into the frame. It should indicate to the worshippers the direction where to turn the prayer — Qibla. Mihrab is often decorated with calligraphic inscriptions or ornaments.
Inside the mosque can be decorated and ornament, and calligraphy, and arabesques and mosaics; later they began to use stained glass and tile panels, carved wood and bronze lamps — for example, all of the above adorned the mosque of Shah Zadeh, of Suleiman I and Selim I. We have already written about that in the visual arts of Islam prevails ornament with different colors of colors and variety of patterns. It can be presented in carving on a stone, metal, clay, in thin drawings of capitals, in carved doors and panels of walls, in the frozen alabaster, in small thin plastic.
Frequent in the architecture of the mosque, columned halls, domes of large size and arches, marble revetments and mosaics. In the 8. the dome shape replaces the column; the column located across the direction of the mihrab to create the impression of a complex and busy space (the temple in Cordoba, 8-10 centuries, had originally 1393 column). Horseshoe arches were widely used, emphasizing the dynamic design.
Externally, the mosque can be decorated with colored tiles, they are also called Iranian, they are often used for cladding mosques and madrasas. The surface of the tiles was sometimes filled with ayats (verses) from the Quran. On them also, most often, there is a vegetable ornament. Solely a variety of tile sets; in their laying used the mosaic principle. In floor mosaics there are landscape and architectural motifs.
Another element of the mosque — Minbar. Minbar — a distinguishing feature of the mosque is the pulpit from which the Imam-Khatib (the leader of the local community, whose duty is to pronounce the sermon — Khutbah) delivers the Friday sermon; the Minbar is the analogue of the pulpit in early Christian and Byzantine Basilica. The first Minbar from which the sermon was read was a felled trunk of a date tree in the Medina mosque. In 628-629 the prophet Muhammad installed a new Minbar made of wood and consisting of two steps and a seat. Since the IX century Minbar began to take the form of a high tribune with a wooden canopy. To such a Minbar is a staircase with railings and a portal or doors. Often minBars are beautiful painted buildings made of wood or stone. They are decorated with carvings, inlays of precious stones, marble or precious wood, decorated with gold, colored earthenware or glass. Some minBars are extremely high and have 5, 7, 9 or more steps.
Most mosques have a minaret. Minaret — the tower (round, square or polyhedral in cross-section), from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer. The minaret is placed next to the mosque or included in its composition. Early minarets often had a spiral staircase or ramp outside (spiral minarets), in the later — inside the tower. There are two main types of minarets: tetrahedral (North Africa) and round-barrel (middle East). Minarets were decorated with patterned brickwork, carvings, glazed ceramics, openwork balconies (sherry).
Currently, there has been a rethinking of the Islamic architectural heritage. People build the mosque on the previous samples, use all the same techniques, but don't see too many handmade, usual in former times: it is now widely used modern materials and technology, allowing you to create a giant, often ratifitsirovala structures. Their external forms and interior decoration generously borrow ideas and decisions of the great masters of the past, adding to them elements of modern aesthetics. Concrete, glass, plastic and metal replace bricks, tiles and glazes; at the same time, the basic canonical principles of Islamic art remain unshakable.
Muslin prayers
Need to pray in purity. This implies a pure body, clothing, and the very place of prayer.
Washing is mandatory. Before you begin to pray, you must perform the rite of ablution. If, after the last prayer you wrote, pooped, farted, you were bleeding, you were asleep lying down, leaned against something, you tore or you faint, then go into the bathroom.
Be sure to close the body properly. Nudity in men is considered to be the bare body from the navel to the knees, in women - the whole body except the face and palms.
If you pray in "mosques", which is preferable, enter quietly - other believers can pray and do not interfere with them. Stand somewhere near the entrance without disturbing anyone.
If you are unsure of the cleanliness of the place, spread the Mat or garment.
Islamic Countries
Islam and War
The war is Islamic forces until 1918
Wahabbists
In Saudi Salafi sheiks were convinced that it was their religious mission to wage Jihad against all other forms of Islam. In 1801 or 1802, the Saudi Wahhabis under Abdul Aziz Ibn Muhammad Ibn Saud attacked and captured the Holy Shia cities of Karbala and Najaf in Iraq, massacred the Shiites and destroyed the tombs of the Shiite Imam Husayn and Ali bin Abu Talib. In 1802 they overtook TAIF. In 1803 and 1804 the Wahhabis overtook Mecca and Medina
Ottoman empire
After joining his father, Suleiman the magnificent began a series of military conquests in Europe.[13] on 29 August 1526, he defeated Louis II of Hungary (1516-26) at the battle of Mohács. In its Wake, Hungarian resistance collapsed and the Ottoman Empire became the leading power in South-Eastern Europe.[14] in July 1683 Sultan Mehmet IV proclaimed a Jihad and the Turkish Grand vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha, laid siege to Vienna with an army of 138,000 men.[15][16][17]
On 14 November 1914, in Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, the religious leader Sheikh ul-Islam announced Jihad on behalf of the Turkish government, calling on Muslims all over the world-including in allied countries—to take up arms against England, Russia, France, Serbia and Montenegro in the first world war.[18] on the other hand, Sheikh Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, refused to accommodate Ottoman requests that he endorse this Jihad, a requirement that Jihad had become popular, thanks to British pressure and on the basis that:'Holy war doctrinally incompatible with an aggressive war, and absurd with a Christian ally: Germany'[19]
Crusade
European crusaders once again conquered most of the territory occupied by the "Islamic state", dividing it into four kingdoms, the most important of which are the state of Jerusalem. The Crusades were not originally intended to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land (former Christian territories) from Muslim rule and were initially launched in response to the call of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire for help against the expansion of Muslim Seljuks in Anatolia. There was little drive to recapture the land from the crusaders, save a few attacks on Egyptian Fatimids. This has changed, however, with the arrival of Zenga, the ruler that is now in Northern Iraq. He took Edessa, who was provoked by a second crusade, which was a little more than a 47-year-old stagnation. The impasse was ended with the victory of Salah al-DIN al-Ayyubi (known in the West as Saladin) over the forces of Jerusalem at the horns of Hattin in 1187. It was during the time of stagnation, which was written a lot of literature about Jihad.[2][page needed] during the creation of his troops in Syria, Saladin had to create a doctrine that would unite his forces and force them to fight to the bitter end, if only they could re-conquer the lands that were selected in the first crusade. He said that anyone who leaves Jihad, commits a sin which cannot be washed off by any means. He also put his emirs in the center of power, just under his power. While this propaganda was successful in unifying its forces for some time, the fervor quickly burned down. A large part of Saladin's teachings were rejected after his death.
The Islamic concept of war
The beginning of Jihad goes back to the words and actions of Muhammad and the Koran.[5] in the Quran, however, never uses the term Jihad to fight and struggle in the name of Allah; qital is used in the meaning of "fighting". According to legal historian Sadaqat Qadri, Islamic jurists first developed the classical Jihad doctrine "by the end of the eighth century", using the Naskh doctrine (that God gradually improve his revelations for prophet Muhammad's mission) they are subordinated to the ayats of the Quran emphasizing harmony more "confrontational" verses of Muhammad years later and related verses to effort (Jihad) for those battles (qital)
Judaism
Judaism, monotheistic religion developed among the ancient Hebrews. Judaism is characterized by a belief in one transcendent God who revealed himself to Abraham, Moses, and the Hebrew prophets and by a religious life in accordance with Scriptures and rabbinic traditions. Judaism is the complex phenomenon of a total way of life for the Jewish people, comprising theology, law, and innumerable cultural traditions.
Jewish philosophy
Main article: Jewish philosophy
Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Major Jewish philosophers include Solomon ibn Gabirol, Saadia Gaon, Judah Halevi, Maimonides, and Gersonides. Major changes occurred in response to the Enlightenment (late 18th to early 19th century) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers. Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy. Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler, Joseph B. Soloveitchik, and Yitzchok Hutner. Well-known non-Orthodox Jewish philosophers include Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, Mordecai Kaplan, Abraham Joshua Heschel, Will Herberg, and Emmanuel Lévinas.
God in Hinduism
Bible, the sacred scriptures of Judaism and Christianity. The Christian Bible consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament, with the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox versions of the Old Testament being slightly larger because of their acceptance of certain books and parts of books considered apocryphal by Protestants. The Jewish Bible includes only the books known to Christians as the Old Testament. The arrangements of the Jewish and Christian canons differ considerably. The Protestant and Roman Catholic arrangements more nearly match one another.
A brief treatment of the Bible follows. For full treatment, see biblical literature.
Traditionally, the Jews have divided their scriptures into three parts: the Torah (the “Law,” or the Pentateuch), the Neviʾim (“Prophets”), and the Ketuvim (“Writings,” or Hagiographa). The Pentateuch, together with the Book of Joshua (hence the name Hexateuch), can be seen as the account of how Israel became a nation and of how it possessed the Promised Land. The division designated as the “Prophets” continues the story of Israel in the Promised Land, describing the establishment and development of the monarchy and presenting the messages of the prophets to the people. The “Writings” include speculation on the place of evil and death in the scheme of things (Job and Ecclesiastes), the poetical works, and some additional historical books.
In the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, various types of literature are represented; the purpose of the Apocrypha seems to have been to fill in some of the gaps left by the indisputably canonical books and to carry the history of Israel to the 2nd century BCE.
The New Testament is by far the shorter portion of the Christian Bible, but, through its associations with the spread of Christianity, it has wielded an influence far out of proportion to its modest size. Like the Old Testament, the New Testament is a collection of books, including a variety of early Christian literature. The four Gospels deal with the life, the person, and the teachings of Jesus, as he was remembered by the Christian community. The book of Acts carries the story of Christianity from the Resurrection of Jesus to the end of the career of Paul. The Letters, or Epistles, are correspondence by various leaders of the early Christian church, chief among them the Apostle Paul, applying the message of the church to the sundry needs and problems of early Christian congregations. The Book of Revelation (the Apocalypse) is the only canonical representative of a large genre of apocalyptic literature that appeared in the early Christian movement.
In the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, various types of literature are represented; the purpose of the Apocrypha seems to have been to fill in some of the gaps left by the indisputably canonical books and to carry the history of Israel to the 2nd century BCE.
The New Testament is by far the shorter portion of the Christian Bible, but, through its associations with the spread of Christianity, it has wielded an influence far out of proportion to its modest size. Like the Old Testament, the New Testament is a collection of books, including a variety of early Christian literature. The four Gospels deal with the life, the person, and the teachings of Jesus, as he was remembered by the Christian community. The book of Acts carries the story of Christianity from the Resurrection of Jesus to the end of the career of Paul. The Letters, or Epistles, are correspondence by various leaders of the early Christian church, chief among them the Apostle Paul, applying the message of the church to the sundry needs and problems of early Christian congregations. The Book of Revelation (the Apocalypse) is the only canonical representative of a large genre of apocalyptic literature that appeared in the early Christian movement.
Below is the list of influences of Christianity
1 On people: Improved morals of the people, Promoted softening of harsh customs, Directed all activity of the person towards good.
2 On Family: Strengthened the marriage, Eliminated polygamy, Ended abuse by man, Released woman from a slavish position in the family, Improved position of children.
3 On Society: Stopped the revenge, Destroyed the slavery, Stopped abuse of children (child labor), Affected in positive ways all areas of life and purified everything, Christian qualities became the qualities of a civilized person.
4 On Culture: Explained love, Explained holiness, Disseminated education and learning, Affected positively art, education, music, Begun printing books, Planted the beginnings of Russian culture, Positively affected the culture of all countries.
5 On Laws and Human rights: The laws all over the world begun to be based on Christian teaching about the life and relations between the people, Many political movements borrowed Christian concepts for their programs. For example "Freedom, brotherhood, equality", "he who does not work, does not eat".
6 On other religions: Many pagan religions were softened and cleansed under the effect of Christianity.
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Christian holidays and celebrations
Thanksgiving
Today’s Thanksgiving feast has its origins in an English Reformation tradition carried on by the pilgrims who arrived at Plymouth in 1620. In an affront to the Catholic liturgical calendar, Puritans celebrated days of fasting and days of feasting—notably the day of feasting at the end of the fall harvest—in gratitude for God’s provision. In an age where consumption of food is often far removed from fields where it is produced, a growing number of evangelicals have reinterpreted the holiday as a time not only to thank God for abundance, but to examine where abundance comes from and the ethics of food, hunger, and environment.
Easter
A celebration of Christ's resurrection, Easter marks Christ's triumph over death and, as the Apostle Peter writes, our "new birth into a living hope." It's a time to reflect on salvation, redemption, and the future coming of Christ's kingdom.
Lent
Lent marks a 40-day period on the church calendar leading up to the celebration of Easter. During Lent, Christians have traditionally engaged in practices of self-denial, like fasting, meant to orient their hearts and minds to the sufferings of Christ, who spent 40 days in the desert fasting and enduring temptations from Satan. While many evangelicals reject Lenten disciplines for their associations with Catholicism, in recent years a greater number have experimented with practices like giving up a favorite indulgence or abstaining from meat on Fridays.
Christmas
One of the most important holidays on the Christian calendar, Christmas is also the most controversial. The so-called "Christmas Wars" garner headlines every year for battles over manger scenes and the use of "Merry Christmas" or "Happy Holidays" (and other seasonal greetings). But Christmas is also a time for theological and spiritual reflection on important foundations of the Christian faith, including the Incarnation and the Virgin Birth.
Advent
Advent, which stems from the Latin adventus ("coming") is a time for Christians to contemplate both Christ’s first coming to the world as baby and his return in glory. It’s also a time to reflect on important foundations of the Christian faith, including the Incarnation and the Virgin Birth.
Islamic holidays
The Islamic Calendar
The Islamic calendar is lunar, like the Jewish calendar. It consists of 12 months of 29 or 30 days each, for a total of 354 days. (The month of Dhu al-Hijjah varies between 29 and 30 days in order to keep the calendar in step with the true phases of the moon, thus some years have 355 days.)
Unlike its Jewish counterpart, however, the Islamic calendar has no corrective system to align it with the solar calendar. Thus the Islamic holidays do not always fall in the same season, and they occur earlier every year on the solar calendar.
The months of the Islamic calendar are as follows:
Muharram
Safr
Rabi' al-Awwal (or Rabi I)
Rabi' al-Thani (or Rabi II)
Jumada al-Ula (or Jumada I)
Jumada al-Thaniyya (or Jumada II)
Rajab
Sha'ban
Ramadan
Shawwal
Dhu al-Qa'dah
Dhu al-Hijjah
Eid Al-Fitr
Eid Al-Adha
In the religion of Islam, 'Id Al-Adha or Eid al-Adha (Arabic , "Festival of the Sacrifice") is a major festival that takes place at the end of the Hajj. It is also known as 'Id al-Qurban or al-'Id al-Kabir (Major Festival). Eid al-Adha marks the completion of the hajj (pilgrimage) rites at Mina, Saudi Arabia, but is also observed by Muslims throughout the world to commemorate the faith of Ibrahim (Abraham).
Eid Al-Adha begins on the 10th of Dhu'l-Hijja, the last month of the Islamic calendar, and lasts for fours days. It begins the day after Muslims on the Hajj descend from Mount Arafat
In the Islamic religion, Al-Hijra - the New Year - is celebrated on the first day of Muharram, the month in which Muhammad emigrated from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE (the Hijra). The holiday is also known simply as Muharram. Islamic years are calculated from 1 Muharram, 622 CE. They are followed by the suffix AH, which stands for "After Hijira" or Anno Higirae (Latin). In 2005, Al-Hijra falls on February 10, 2005, which will be 1426 AH.
Unlike the important holidays of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, there are few rituals associated with Islamic New Year. There are no prescribed religious observances. Most Muslims regard the day as a time for reflection on the Hijira and on the year to come. In modern times, some Muslims exchange greeting cards to celebrate the holiday.
Ramadan
Ramadan is not a holy day to Muslims, but a holy month. It is the ninth month of the Islamic year, in which "the Quran was sent down as a guidance for the people". Ramadan is similar to the Jewish Yom Kippur in that both constitute a period of atonement; Ramadan, however, is seen less as atonement and more as an obedient response to a command from Allah.
During Ramadan, those who are able must abstain from food and drink (including water), evil thoughts and deeds, and sexual intercourse from dawn until dusk for the entire month. Because the holiday cycles through the solar year, this fast can be much more challenging in some years than others. When Ramadan falls in the summer season, the days of fasting are longer and it is a greater hardship to do without water.
Non-Muslims in Islamic countries during Ramadan must be careful not to eat, drink, or smoke in the presence of Muslims during the daytime hours of fasting, as the law requires adherence to the fast in public. The traditional greeting during Ramadan is "Ramadan Mubarak" ("May God give you a blessed month") and the reply is "Ramadan Karim" ("May God give you a generous month").
The beginning and end of Ramadan are announced when one trustworthy witness testifies before the authorities that the new moon has been sighted; a cloudy sky may, therefore, delay or prolong the fast. The end of the fast is celebrated with one of two Islamic festivals, 'Id al-Fitr.
Ashura
Al-Hijra
Id Al-Fitr or Eid al-Fitr (Arabic for "Festival of the Breaking of the Fast") is one of Islam's two major festivals.
Meaning
Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan, the month of fasting. It is a time of celebration and thankfulness to God for the self-control practiced during Ramadan.
Rituals
Rituals and practices of 'Id al-Fitr are characterized by joyfulness, togetherness and thankfulness. They include the following:
communal (mosque) prayer at dawn on the first day
social gatherings and official receptions
gift-giving
eating sweets
wearing new clothes
visiting graves of family
the greeting 'Id Mabarak ("May God make it a blessed feast")
Ashura (also spelled Aashurah, ‘Ashurah or Aashoorah), is an Islamic holiday observed on the 10th of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic year. The word Ashura means "10," denoting the date of the holiday.
Shortly after the Hijira in AD 622, Muhammad designated Ashura as a day of fasting from sunset to sunset, perhaps patterned on the Jewish Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). Traditionally, Ashura commemorates two events: the day Nuh (Noah) left the ark and the day Musa (Moses) was saved from the Egyptians by Allah.
When Jewish-Muslim relations became strained, however, Muhammad designated Ramadan the Muslim month of fasting, making Ashura a voluntary fast, as it has remained among Sunnis. Among Shi'ites, however, Ashura is a major festival, the tazia (ta'ziyah). It commemorates the death of Husayn (also spelled Hussein), son of Imam 'Ali and grandson of Muhammad, on the 10th of Muharram, AH 61 (October 10, 680), in Karbala, Iraq. The event led to the split between the Sunni and Shia sects of Islam, and it is of central importance in Shia Islam.
