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These bonds occur within the molecule.

Sharing of electrons some examples are C-H,N-H, S-H.

Transfer of electrons, this is usually seen with salts.NaCl

These bonds occur in between two molecules.

Interactions of electrons of non-polar substances.

Hydrogen bonding occurs when an H molecule binds with F< O or N. They are typically strong.Examples: H2O and NH3

Uneven distribution of electron clouds

Unequal sharing of electrons

Interacts with water.

equal sharing of electrons Examples: C-H Cl-Cl

These molecules tend to separate from water such as oil

releases materials and they leave the plasma membrane

Cell membrane engulfs matrials

takes in specific proteins

takes in food

Takes in fluids

Proteins that need to go to the plasma membrane are embedded into the vesicle membrane. The vesicle merges with the plasma membrane, integrating the protein into the cell surface.

The membrane contains both hydrophilic and hydrophobic characteristics

held together by ester linkages

The phosphate group is hydrophilic

Lipid bilayers form the structure of the membrane. made of hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

Cholesterol is found embedded within the cell membrane.It also helps with membrane stability and fluidity. 

Proteins are made of one or more polypeptide chains. Proteins are made when the signal peptide is cleaved by signal peptidase in the receptor protein complex and the protein is now inside the ER lumen and folds into its final conformation. Proteins are then directed to their final destination based on their sorting signals.

Amino Acids are linked by peptide bonds. There are 20 amino acids that humans use.

The classification of an amino acid is determined by its R group which is the side chain. Certain aspects can classify an amino acid as basic, acidic, polar, or non-polar.

When the R groups are either + (Basic) or - (acidic) they will form Ionic bonds

When the R groups end with CH or H they will be non-polar and are hydrophobic

When the R groups are OH or NH they will be polar and hydrophilic.

A glycoprotein is a type of protein that has carbohydrate groups attached to the polypeptide chain. Glycoproteins help maintain structural integrity by stabilizing the cell membranes and supporting the ECM.

Proteins that need to be secreted are packaged into secretory vesicles. The vesicles merge with the plasma membrane, releasing the protein outside the cell.

An entire polysaccharide is a polymer.

A linear polysaccharide linked by alpha (1,4).

A branched polysaccharide. Alpha (1,4) and alpha (1,6) linked.

Can be digested quickly.

Nucleic acids are polymers made up of small units called nucleotides.There are two types of nucleic acidsDNARNA

A nucleoside is a structural component of DNA and RNA comprising a 5 carbon sugar and nitrogenous base. Lacks a phosphate group

Prokaryotes are single cell organisms

selective permiable barrier mechanical boundry of cellnutrient and waste transport

Bouyancy for floating in aquatic enviorment

Survival under harsh enviormental conditions

Resistance to phagocytosis adherance to surfaces

gives bacteria shape and protection from lysisin dilute solutions peptodiglycan

helps with movement

Formed by Dehydration synthesis

There are covalent bonds present in the primary structurecan be a linear sequence.

Hydrogen bonds in between the backbones stabilize the alpha and beta sheets and helps with folding .

Tertiary structure is the shape of the polypeptide chain and it includes secondary structures.-Hydrophobic interactions occur between non-polar side chains-When acidic and basic it is Ionic bonds-Disulfide with S-S and S-H bonds (the only covalent bond)

Consists of more than one polypeptide chain, multiple chains come together to form a larger protein structure.

Translation is the process by which ribosomes use mRNA as a template to synthesize proteins. During translation tRNA molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome where they are linked together in the sequence specified by the mRNA codons forming a polypeptide chain that folds into a functional protein

Translation is separated from transcription by the nuclear membrane, and mRNA undergoes modifications (capping, splicing, polyadenylation) before being translated in the cytoplasm or on the rough ER. Eukaryotic translation also involves larger ribosomes and more complex initiation mechanisms.

Intron are removed

Exons are left

Only contains exons

mRNA is a type of RNA that carries a genetic instructions from DNA in the cell nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where it serves as a template for protein synthesis

TNA is a type of RNA that helps translate genetic information from mRNA into the correct sequence of amino acids protein synthesis

Ribosomes are cellular structures composed of RNA and proteins and they act as a side of protein synthesisProkaryotes have 60s ribosomesEukaryotes have a 70s Ribosome

The ribosome assembles around the mRNA, and the first tRNA, carrying the starting amino acid, binds to the start codon on the mRNA.For Eukaryotes the tRNA binds the 5 guanine cap and searches for the start codon

The ribosome moves along the mRNA, and tRNA bring amino acid to the ribosome. The ribosome links the amino acids together to form growing polypeptide chain.

When a stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the completed polypeptide, and the translation process ends.

Translation occurs in the cytoplasm. The ribosomes directly bind to the mRNA aligning the start codon (AUG) for protein synthesis. Prokaryotic translation doesn’t involve mRNA processing or nuclear compartmentalizationProkaryotes contain Formal MET

some archea live in extrem enviormentsextremophiles

live in high saline enviorments

Thrive in very hot enviorments

Hydrophilic

To determine if a fatty acid is unsaturated, look for a chain with at least one double bond between carbon atoms. Double bonds indicate an unsaturated fatty acid.

Cis=Same Side

Trans= opposite

To identify a saturated fat from an unsaturated fat, look at the fatty acid chain where all the carbon bonds are single bonds (no double bonds present) which makes the carbon chain saturated with H atoms. Results in a straight, tightly packed, solid structure at room temperature.

Solid at room temperature.

Ester linkages connect the phospholipid by connecting the phosphate head with the two fatty acids. Triglyceride has ester links with glycerol and three fatty acids.

Cohesion allows for water transport in plants and it can create high surface tension

High specific heta can help moderate temperature

When water freezes it expands as molecules are held together by a rigid state

The amount of heat required to change liquid water to vapor. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

Since water is polar it dissolves other polar and ionic compounds. It can also form a hydration shell around molecules such as NA and Cl. Water however cannot dissolve non polar molevcules.

when it is solid it will float thus insulating the water underneath, this is crucial to maintain life.

protein synthesis In the end of the making the protein, the rest of the completed polypeptide leaves the ribosome.

Polypeptide synthesis begins on a free ribosome in the cytosol. The cytosol is the fluid part of the cytoplasm, found inside the cell but outside the organelles. It fills the space between the cell membrane and the organelles.

The function of the SRP is that it recognizes and binds to the signal sequence of a newly synthesized protein emerging from the ribosome. The SRP halts translation temporarily to stop the protein from being synthesized completely in the cytosol. The SRP guides the ribosome-protein complex to the ER membrane by binding the SRP receptor protein to the ER. Then the SRP leaves once at the ER.

Connected by phosphodiester linkage

forms the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA and RNA

has base paring A-T and G-CThe base paring for DNA is T, A, C, GThe base paring for RNA is U, A, C, G

single ring structureC U T

present in RNA replaces T with U

double ring structureA G

Links nucleotides together with phosphodiester bonds

has an OH group making it less stable

ribonucleic acid

lacks an OH group making it more stable

deoxyribonucleic acid

There are hydrogen bonds in between the two strands of DNA

This is separate from transcription and translation and requires the assistance of multiple enzymes to accomplish.

The Meselson and Stahl experiment Proved that DNA uses a parent strand to form the newly synthesized daughter strands. This was proven right after the experiment showed intermediate and light in their replication rounds.

Helicase is the first step it unzips the two strands of DNA it breaks the hydrogen bonds.

The origin of Replication is formed with the helicase making a bubble. The ORI then makes two replication for that are bidiretional.

The replication fork is bidirectional

The SSB is the protein that stabilizes the DNA so that it would wind again.

Topoisomerase is responsible for relieving the tension from the coiled DNA strand.

DNA polymerase is responsible for adding DNA it needs The Rna primer and can only go from a 5 to 3 direction

removes the RNA primer

Ligase glues the Okazaki fragments made in the lagging strand so that it makes a continuous strand.

The leading strand synthesizes towards the replication for and it is continuous

The lagging strand synthesizes away from the replication fork.

since the lagging strand is going away from the replication fork it is made through Okazaki fragments, which are small segments of dna polymerase that are glued with ligase.

adds the RNA Primer, this is necessary so that DNA polymerase 3 knows where to go.

The theory suggests that DNA replicates with the assistance of a parent strand and then the parent strand reforms. This theory was later disproved.

This theory suggested a mixture of both parent and daughter strands. this was later disproved.

Discovered that there was a genetic material but did not know what it was. This was found in his experiment with the rats where the heat killed s transformed the R to kill the rat.

Messelson and Stahl discovered that DNA was replicated in a semiconservative manner after his experiment showed intermediate after the first replication and intermidiete and light in his second round of replication.

Hershey and Chase discovered that DNA was the genetic material and not protein in their experiment with bacteriophage where they found that the DNA was entering the cell nd making copies of more bacteriophage.

Prokaryotes have one origin of replication

Eukaryotes have multiple origins of replication

both strand are opposite one is 3'-5' while the other is 5'-3'

Chargaff's rule states that DNA is paired with one purine and one pyrimidine. He also states that the number of A=T and G=C

Electrons are transferred from NADH and FAD2 to oxygen, forming water. Cellular respiration relies on the breakdown of glucose.

The first step of cellular respiration

a carbohydrate

the product of the enzyme Hexokinase

made by phosphoglucose isomerase

made from the enzyme phosphofructo kinase

the overall products of glycolysis

When there is no oxygen present, some cells go through fermentation where the only cellular respiration process done is glycolysis producing very few ATP

The second step of cellular respiration

the inputs

the outputs

the third step of cellular respiration

the input of the third step of the CAC

the output from isocitrate

acetyl coenzyme A; input for step one of the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)

the product of acetyl CoA

the overall products of the CAC

The last step of cellular respiration

an electron carrier

The ETC generates a proton gradient across a membrane by pumping H+ from one side of the membrane to the other. Transport of electrons through reactions. Essential for ATP production.

The location of the Electron Transport chain in Photosynthesis is in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.

The location of the Electron Transport Chain in cellular reparation is in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

an electron carrier as well as a proton pump and makes water from oxygen

pumps protons out of the matrix into the intermembranespace

oxygen; the input of complex fourIn photosynthesis and in the light reaction cycle o2 is released as a waste product.

water; the output of complex fourIn photosynthesis, specifically the light reaction cycle H2O is split to ptovide electrons and Protons.

an electron carrier and make FAD

the input of complex two

the output of complex two

an electron carrier and proton pump that serves to make NAD+ through NADH

pumps protons out of the matrix into the intermembranespace

the input of complex one

the output of complex one

makes ATP from the energy of incoming protons

the input of ATP synthase

the output of ATP synthaseIn photosynthesis and more specifically the light reaction cycle, ATP is generated by adding a phosphate group to ADP in a process called photophosphorylation.

Movement of protons across a selectively permeable membrane, down the electrochemical gradient. This utilizes the proton gradient created by the ETC to drive synthesis of ATP to ADP and phosphate. The protons flow back across the membrane through ATP synthase, providing the energy needed to make ADP into ATP. Chemiosmosis in photosynthesis, the proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane generates a proton force so that the protons flow back into the stroma through ATP synthase, synthesizing ATP from ADP and phosphate. Essential for ATP production.

the overall products of oxidative phosphorylation

Present in a target cell that receives the signal molecule.

The signal molecule is hydrophilic, a receptor in the membrane.

During reception, there is a signal molecule that attaches to the GPCR.

Once the GDP attaches to the GPCR it then turns into GTP.

The GTP then binds adenylyl cyclase and then it is activated. Then it releases a cellular response.

The cyclic AMP activates the first kinase then it starts the casade, where each kinase activates a new one using the enzyme Kinases which transfers phosphate groups to activate. Then it gets unactivated when it removes a phosphate group with the enzyme phosphatase.

Adenenly cyclase turn AMP to Cyclic AMP which then bind to the first Kinase.Phosphodiesterase turns Cyclic AMP to AMP

Once the last kinase is activated in the cascade it enters the nucleus.

Then the transcription factor gets activated

Active transcription factor then binds the DNA and it stimulates transcription of a specific gene.

A non-polar signal can diffuse directly across the lipid bilayer.

Through the steroid hormone aldosterone passes through the plasma membrane

Aldosterone binds to a receptor protein in the cytoplasm activating it.

The hormone receptor complex enters the nucleus and binds to specific genes.

The bound protein acts as a transcription factor, stimulating the transcription of the gene into mRNA

the mRNA is translated into a specific protein.

Uses a target Cell and usually flows through blood vessels

Signal travels through bloodstream.

Cells that releases signals are near the cells that receive the signals.

This energy is primarily produced through cellular respiration, where glucose and oxygen are converted into ATP, the main energy currency of the cell.

Photosynthesis harnesses light energy. There are two stages of photosynthesis. Stage one involves Light reactions and stage 2 involves the Calvin cycle. Photosynthesis is summarized as electrons are extracted from water and transferred to CO2. H2O is oxidized and CO2 is reduced. photosynthesis is important to life on earth because it provides energy to plants that gives energy to those who eat them

Light reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane in chloroplast.Light reactions convert solar energy into chemical energy. H2O is split to provide electrons and protons. Light energy excites the electrons to a higher energy level in Photosystem II which are then transferred to Photosystem I and in the process reduce NADP+ to NADPH for the Calvin cycle. In the process of the noncyclic flow of electrons in the photosystems, ATP is made from the ETC. Inputs of the light reaction cycle: H2O, ADP, NADP+ and Lightinputs like ADP and NADP+ are gained from Calvin cycle. Outputs of the light reaction cycle: O2, ATP, and NADPHoutputs like ATP and NADPH are then used for the calvin Cycle.

Reaction center chlorophyll a absorbs at 680nm hence called p680Splits H2O, releasing O2 and generates some ATP

reaction center chlorophyll a absorbs at 700nm hence called P700reduces NADP+ to NADPH

The calvin cycle is stage 2 of photosynthesis and occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. The Calvin cycle produces sugar from CO2 with the help of the NADPH and ATP produced by the light reactions. Inputs of the calvin cycle are CO2, 6 NADPH, and 6 ATPCO2 is initially incorporated into an organic molecule through carbon fixationATP provides the necessary chemical energy, and NADPH provides the electrons needed to reduce CO2. Inputs like ATP and NADPH are gained from light reactionsOutputs of the calvin cycle are 9 ADP, 6 NADP+, and 1 G3P Outputs like ADP and NADP+are received to be used in Light Reactions

Carbon Fixation is the first step of the calvin cycle. It involves the addition of CO2 from atmosphere to Ribulose Bisphosphate (carbon acceptor) using the enzyme Rubisco (adds carbon from atmosphere. This forms a 6 carbon unstable intermediate. Immediately splits to form 2 molecules of 3 carbon ( also called 3 phosphoglycerate). To form 1 molecule of glucose (6C) we need 6 CO2 to be fixed. 12 NADPH and 19 ATP.

The product of the calvin cycle is G3P (a sugar)

Metabolism refers to the life sustaining chemical reactions in organisms that convert food into energy and build or breakdown molecules for growth, repair, and maintenance.

Thermodynamics refers to the study of energy flow and transformations within living systems

Decomposers are organisms that breakdown dead organic matter

Producers are organisms that can produce their own energy

Consumers are organisms that obtain energy by eating producers or other consumers

Fermentation is a metabolic process in which cells convert sugars into energy in the absence of oxygen

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, which in biological systems is seen in processes like the movement of muscles or the flow of molecules across cell membranes.

Chemical energy refers to the energy stored in the bonds of molecules, such as glucose, which can be released during cellular processes like respiration.

Potential energy is the stored energy in a system.

High permeability is when they can easily pass through the plasma membrane. This is when molecules are small and non polar

Low permeability is when molecules have a difficult time passing through the membrane.LARGE AND POLAR CANNOT PASS MEMBRANE

When the membrane is under hot temperatures, it becomes more fluid, this occurs with unsaturated fats.

Requires energy, goes against its concentration gradient

uses ATP to power the transport

when two forces are balanced

Signal transmission

The activation gates on the Na+ and K+ channels are closed and the membrane resting potential is maintained.

A stimulus Opens the activation gates on some Na+ channels Na+. Na+ influx through those channels depolarizes the membrane. If it reaches the threshold. it triggers action potential.

Depolarization opens the activation gates on most Na+ channels while the K+ channel's activation gates remain closed. Na + influx makes the inside of the membrane positive concerning the outside

The inactivation gates on most Na+ channels close blocking the Na+ influx. The activation gates on most K+ channels opens permitting K+ efflux which again makes inside of the cell negative.

Both gates of Na close but the activation gates on some K+ channels are still open. Then returns to resting membrane potential

Does not require energy and goes down its concentration gradient.

Aided by proteins helps non polar or large molecules

Can easily flow through always open

carrier proteins binds molecules and carries them out

Open when membrane is mechanically deforemed

Open and close when a neurotransmitter binds to a channel

Open and close in response to membrane potential

attactchmnet to surfaces and bacteria mating

The double membrane structure holds the site of photosynthesis (thylakoid membrane)

Found in plant cells.Allows water nad nutrients to travel from one cell to another.

Cite of storage

eukaryotes are multicellular and are more complex organisms

eukaryotes are multicellular and are more complex organisms

The cis face of this structure takes in molecules from the ER to further fold and change molecules to the intended final structure that leaves from the trans face.

packed with enzymes needed to break covalent bonds has low PHbreaks down molecules to smaller partsProteins that are destined to go to the lysosomes are tagged with specific tags, they then function

Large membrane-bound organelles are used for storage of food, water, and ions.

When a protein enters the endomembrane system, polypeptide synthesis resumes, with the polypeptide being inserted into the ER lumen.

attached in the nucleus synthesizes lipidsmetabolizes carbsand is used in detoxifying drugs/ poison

Has bound ribosomes. site of synthesis fro glycoproteins.

All DNA is organized in this structure. Site of transcription

A double membrane structure regulates transport

Utilizes hydrogen peroxide as a biproduct to break down molecules and creates water

This doubble membrane structure is the site where cellular respiration occurs

some things can pass between cell

everything can pass between cell

Nothing can pass between cell

Actin maintains cell shape, cell motility and cell divisionVesicles walking on microtubes

Proteins in the kreatin familymaintains cell shape , anchorage of the nucleus formation of laminaFunFunctionsFunFunctions: maintain cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and certain otherorganelles, and formation of nuclear laminaFunctions: maintain cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and certain otherorganelles, and formation of nuclear laminactions: maintain cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and certain otherorganelles, and formation of nuclear lamina

alpha and beta TubulinCell shape, cell motility, chromosome movements in cell division

Fibronectin, peptiglycan and collagen provide structure for animal cells.

the process of DNA making an mRNA strand; takes place in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell and the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell

DNA sequence that dictates where RNA polymerase will bind and start transcription

proteins that regulate the rate of transcription by binding to DNA

an enzyme that transcribes DNA and forms an mRNA by adding ribonucleotides to the 3' end of its strand

the final product of transcription for eukaryotes

only happens in eukaryotes; the process after transcription that modifies the pre-mRNA

the final product of prokaryote transcription and post-transcription modification in eukaryotes; serves to code for a protein using a ribosome

a complex serving to remove introns from pre-mRNA

pieces of the pre-mRNA that are removed if not used, depending on what gene needs to be translated

pieces of the pre-mRNA that are kept and are actually used for translation in the specific cell

a DNA sequence that calls for the end of transcription and the separation of the DNA and RNA Polymerase II

Eukaryotic transcription uses DNA polymerase 2it occurs in the nucleus and it has the addition of the 5 guanine cap and the Poly A tail. Its first product is also pre-mRNA.

differences include lack of post-transcription modification and the things it brings with it (splicing, g-cap, poly-a tail), coupling of transcription and translation, and the setting of the process (cytoplasm for prokaryotes)

Eukaryotic Gene Regulation tries to prevent the formation in transcription phase as it is attempting to conserve energy and save its resources

Transcription factors attach to the TATA box, they assist RNA polymerase 2 to initiate transcription. There are two typed, General and Specific.

Bring about Low levels of transcription (Background/Basal)

Sequences in DNA close to the promoterBind general transcription factors.

Change the level of transcription.

increase levels of transcription.

If high levels of transcription, then they reduce levels.

EnhancersActivators/ Repressors bind specific transcription factorsUpstream or Downstream of the Gene

Bind to the distal control elements grouped as enhancers in DNA contains 3 binding sites

DNA bending protein bends the activator close to the promoter Then General transcription factors, mediators and RNA polymerase are attracted.

The activators bind to the mediator protein and general transcription factors and RNA synthesis occurs.

guanine at the 5' end of an mRNA serving to let the mRNA out of the nucleus and attach to a ribosome

many adenines at the 3' end of the mRNA that serve to help with transportation of the mRNA

An operon is a transcription unit of genes whose products are required under identical circumstances. it facilitates the coordinated expression of multiple genes. The DNA sequence of an operon comprises three different components.

a promoter is a sequence of DNA where RNA polymerase can bind to initiate transcription

The operator is a part of the DNA where a repressor can bind to, controlling access to the promoterIf a repressor is bound to the operator, blocks RNA polymerase and no mRNA can be made.

When lactose is present, lactose binds in the form of allolactose to the permanently expressed repressor protein. This binding inactivates the repressor, unblocking the operator. Now the RNA polymerase can bind to the promoter and read the genes.

Cell will use lactose as energy source, makes allolactose, binds to and inhibits to the repressor and triggers the expression of the lac gene.

cAMP then binds to CAP

cAMP and CAP complex forms a dimer that binds to the DNA close to the lac promoter and increases RNA polymerase activity

In the presence of glucose, lactose degradation is possible but not essential for survivalGlucose presence inhibits cAMP production, reducing CAP binding and transcription.

Lac repressor protein binds tightly to the operator and prevents transcription of the lac genes by blocking RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter

In the absence of lactose, a repressor protein is bound to the lac operator. This binding prevents transcription of the downstream lac genes.

The repressor protein is encoded by the regulatory gene Lac I. Lac I is located upstream.

The three genes can be transcribed together as polygenic mRNA.

Protein is essential to lactose metabolism. This enzyme breaks down lactose to simple sugar residues that can then be used

Protein is essential to lactose metabolism. Permease forms pores in the bacterial cell membrane

Protein is essential to lactose metabolism.

Once the signal attaches to GPCR then it gets activated and the GDP attaches.