по Thanushka Kotalawala 10 лет назад
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Motivation is the willingness to spend energy to achive a goal or reward
Motivation is typified as an individual phenomenon.
Every person is unique and all the major theories of motivation allow for this uniqueness to be demonstrated in one way or another.
■Motivation is described, usually, as intentional.
Motivation is assumed to be under the worker’s control, and behaviours that are influenced by motivation, such as effort expended, are seen as choices of action.
■Motivation is multifaceted.
The two factors of greatest importance are: (i) what gets people activated (arousal); and (ii) the force of an individual to engage in desired behaviour (direction or choice of behaviour).
■The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour.
Motivation is not the behaviour itself, and it is not performance. Motivation concerns action, and the internal and external forces which influence a person’s choice of action.
attempt to identify the relationship among the dynamic variables which make up motivation. These theories are concerned more with how behaviour is initiated, directed and sustained. Process theories place emphasis on the actual process of motivation. These theories are discussed later in this chapter.
Goal theory
The basic premise of goaltheoryis that people’s goals or intentions play an important part in determining behaviour.
People strive to achieve goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires. Goals guide people’s responses and actions.
Practical implications for managers
should be specific performance goals
Must not be too difficult
Clear feedback should be given on achivement
goals can be set by supiior or individuals themself. goals set by individuals are more accepted by them
Equity theory
Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they have been treated in comparison with the treatment received by others.
When the ratio of a person’s total outcomes to total inputs equals the perceivedratio of other people’s total outcomes to total inputs there is equity.
Behavior as a consequence of inequity
Change to input, change to outcome, Cognitive distortion o inputs and outcomes, Leaving the field, acting on others, Changing the object of comparision
The manager may seek to remove or reduce tension and perceived inequity among staff by influencing these types of behaviour
Expectancy theoriesof motivation
The underlying basis of expectancy theory is that people are influenced by the expected results of their actions. Motivation is a function of the relationship between:
1effort expended and perceived level of performance; and
2the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance.
There must also be
3the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) are available.
This has theories of variouse writer like victor wroom
attempt to explain those specific things which actually motivate the individual at work. These theories are concerned with identifying people’s needs and their relative strengths, and the goals they pursue in order to satisfy these needs. Content theories place emphasis on the nature of needs and what motivates.
Establish goals
take action
attain goal
need
Managerial needs theory
Achievement
Power
Avoidance
McClelland saw the achievement need (n-Ach) as the most critical for the country’s economic growth and success. The need to achieve is linked to entrepreneurial spirit and the development of available resources.
McClelland has, over years of empirical research, identified four characteristics of people with a strong achievement need (n-Ach): a preference for moderate task difficulty; personal responsibility for performance; the need for feedback; and innovativeness.
For people with a high achievement motivation, money is not an incentive but may serve as a means of giving feedback on performance.
For people with low achievement motivation money may serve more as a direct incentive for performance.
McClelland suggests four steps in attempting to develop achievement drive: ■Striving to attain feedback on performance. Reinforcement of success serves to strengthen the desire to attain higher performance. ■Developing models of achievement by seeking to emulate people who have performed well. ■Attempting to modify their self-image and to see themselves as needing challenges and success. ■Controlling day-dreaming and thinking about themselves in more positive terms.
McClelland has also suggested that as effective managers need to be successful leaders and to influence other people, they should possess a high need for power.
Maslow,Alderfer and Herzberg linked
Herzberg's two factor theory
Hygin factors
When hygine factors are present, it means people are not dissatisfied, but, not satisfied. these factors are more extrincic to the job itself
motivators
When these factors are present, it means the person is satisfied. but when these factors are not present it does not mean that a person is dissatisfied
Both these factors are important, if hygine factors are not there, people will be dissatisfied and if motivators are not their people will not be satisfied
This theory is less applicable to manual workers who's work is more boring and monotonouse.
There is a problem in the methodology behind this theory. because the participants of this reserch may tend to say that good things that has happend are due to thir own performance and bad things are due to external factors. this may create biasness from interviews in distingushing these two
ERG Theory
Maslow's 5 level needs is modified to 3
Existance needs
Sustaining human existance and survival
Psychological and safety needs
Marital nature
Relatedness needs
Relationship with social environment
Love belonging and affiliation
Meaningful interpersonal relationships of safety and esteem nature
Growth needs
Development of potential
Self esteem and actualization
In this theory, it is considered that need are in a continum than in a hierarch and more than one type on needs may arise in the same time
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
It tells that the human needs are arranged in a series of levels, a hierarchy of importance. it is a step by step process where when a person satisfy a one need he goes to the other.
Physiological needs. These include homeostasis (the body’s automatic efforts to retain normal functioning) such as satisfaction of hunger and thirst, the need for oxygen and to maintain temperature regulation. Also sleep, sensory pleasures, activity, maternal behaviour, and arguably sexual desire.
■Safety needs. These include safety and security, freedom from pain or threat of physical attack, protection from danger or deprivation, the need for predictability and orderliness.
■Love needs(often referred to as social needs). These include affection, sense of belonging, social activities, friendships, and both the giving and receiving of love. ■Esteem needs(sometimes referred to as ego needs). These include both self-respect and the esteem of others. Self-respect involves the desire for confidence, strength, independence and freedom, and achievement. Esteem of others involves reputation or prestige, status, recognition, attention and appreciation.
■Self-actualisation needs. This is the development and realisation of one’s full potential. Maslow sees this as: ‘What humans can be, they must be’, or ‘becoming everything that one is capable of becoming’. Self-actualisation needs are not necessarily a creative urge, and may take many forms which vary widely from one individual to another.
There are exceptions to this. as an example for a person, self actualization can be more important than love. this has been mentioned clearly by maslow
Application of maslows need hierarchy
Criticisms
people don't satisfy especially higher level needs through job istead they satisfy them through other means
doubt about the time where lower level needs are satisfied and higher level need arise
People may put different values on the same need
Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational outcome of behaviour. But job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved work performance.
Classical conditioning
A form of learning where one stimilus (conditionsed stimulus) comes to signal the ocurance of a second stimulus(unconditioned stimulus)
operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)
A form of learning in which the individual's behaviour is modified
Positive intrinsic
I really want to do it (do it because you want)
Negative intrinsic
I really don't want to do it (don't do it because you don't want)
Positive extrinsic
do it because I get an incentive
Negative intrinsic
don't do it because you will be punished
Intrinsic motivation
Self generated factors that influence people behaviour
not created by external incentives
the work itself motivate people
When work is important, and it challenging, when autonomy is there and ability to use, improve and develop skills
last for long
extrinsic motivation
the externally provided factors for motivation
have a very powerful effect but it is short term
M framework
Unsatisfied need
Search for need satisfaction
Need oriented behaviour
Performance
Rewards punishment
Motivation (goes back to top again)
1. Direction – what a person is trying to do.
2. Effort – how hard a person is trying.
3. Persistence – how long a person keeps on trying.
Managing relationships in the 21sst century is challenging due to the multinational nature of the modern companies
Managing diversity is a challenge to managers due to eual opportunities, changing demographics(population is aging) and government legislations
Diversity is the visible and non visible differences in individuals such as age sex etc. it is found that it is more productive to have diversity. because it gives a larger pool of talents and working with customers in different personalities further emphasis thee importance.
Mqnagers must have emotional intelligence
Attitude - Providing a state of readiness to respond in a particular way
Beliefs -What is known about the world... focus on reality
Values - With what should be and and what is desirable
"To convert a belief into an attitude, a value ingredient is needed.
A learned predisposition to respond in a consistantly favourable or unfavourable manner
Can we predict behaviour based on attitudes?
The answer is no based on researchs.(Chinese couple)
These findings say two things
1Attitudes cannot be seen; they can only be inferred
The measurement systems such as direct observation and self reporting techniques may not give the correct picture. (Ice berg theory)
2Attitudes are often shared within organisations and as such are embodied in the culture of organisations
Sharing commom attitudes can make people believe that they belog to a team. this will motivate thi. However on the other hand if they don't feel others share their attitudes they may be demotivated
There are many.
Those related to the job are.
Job involvement
Organizational commitment
Job satisfaction
Self imagin and self reformation
education and hard work
Discipline and organization
Belief in righteousness and truth
Personality
Values
Work situation
Social influences
Mostly no. tip of the Ice berg is the behaviour. it is known to others. what is underneath is the attitude. and cannot be identified easily.
Persuasive communication - something persuade the person to change the attitude
Social norms - Norms of a social group may affect attitudes
Cognitive dissonance- A person becomes uncomfortable with some aspects of the beliefs
Is affected by a persons belief about an object and the amount and type of information a person has about the object
Value expressive functions - expression of who we are and what we believe in
Ego defensive function - protecting self esteem
Knowledge function- Know the world
Utilitarian/ instrumental function - Gain rewards and avoid punishment
Positive reaction (PR)
Negative reaction (NR)
PR High, NR Low -Positive attitude
PR Low, NR High -Negative reaction
PR high, NR High - Dual attitude(Ambivalance)
PR low NR Low - Indifference
Positive attitude - Predisposition that result is a desirable outcome for individuals and organizations
Negative attitudes - Tendancy of a person to react in a way which gives undesirable outcomes for individuals and organizations
Cognitive - Openion or belifs about attitude objects
Affective - Emotions and feelings a object triger
Behavioural - Reactions towards the objects
eg-My supervisor didn't give me the promotion I deserve, I dont like him, I ComplIn about him to all
Beliefs are judgments about ourselves and the world around us.
Usually generalized
eg - Killing is bad. it says about the action killing. it also says it is bad
Eg- I hear a dog barking
I observe dog barking and chasing someone
I experience dog barking and chasing me
Belief
All dogs are mean, Bark and they chase people. So dogs are mean
A Concept of desirable, an internalized criterion or stand of evaluation of a person process
Theoritical
Economical
Aesthetic
Social
Political
Religiouse
Learned and aquired through experience with people and insfitutions
What you live with
What you pactice
What you actually do
Can the personality be measured
Nomothetic approaches says that the personality can be measured and can use the measurings to predict the behaviour. based on that personality is inherited and does not change
Ideographic approaches says that personality is unique to a person and largely depends on environmental influences. it says that it cannot be measured simply like is Nomotbetic approach
Situational
Culture
Assorciates/Social
Family background
Heredity
Intelligence and abilities
Perception
Ethnic origin
Physique
Gender
Early family experiences
Social and cultural factors
National culture
Personality traits and types
Attitudes
Motivation
extroversion/introversion ■agreeableness/hostility ■conscientiousness/heedlessness ■emotional stability/instability ■openness or intellect/closed-mindedness
INHERITED
Physical
Intelegence
Sex
Age
Religion
LEARNED
Perception
Attitude
Personality
Values
Stable charactoristics which explain why a person behaves in a particular way
by identifying the personality, we can predict the behaviour of a person. when a person diviate from his normal pattern of behaviour managers should detect it
