作者：Jane Matsell 13 年以前
212
更多类似内容
more important:
ceonceptual, not aesthetic, response
stimulation of interest
impact
AND, a parasitic infestation during development that reduces fertility also effect facial and bodily symmetry [6]
offspring/conspecifics[6]
mates
prey
V
perceptual problem solving
classifying objects
seeing the similarity is the basis for sensing a connection and forming a CONCEPT[6]
[6]much of creating, critiquing, and understanding art is forming concepts
[6]since vitaly survival, there is reward from the limbic system
vital for survival: prey v. predator, edible vs. inedible, etc [6]
[6] an objects discovered after a struggle is more pleasing (aesthetically) than one that is instantly obvious
IV
Contrast Extraction
regions of change (in luminosity, texture or color) are similar to outlines, in that they grag the attention of our visual systems
principle often used in nature (though oppositely, in camoflauge) [6]
III
Isolate a single module to allocate attention
cells in the visual pathway are stimulated by edges and do not pay attention to homogenous regions [6]
explains why outlines are more effective as "art" than a photograph of the same thing [6]
one of the first and main functions of the vision system: locate and delineate objects
i.e., defeat camoflauge [6]
has to be reinforcing in order to provide incentive to do so
[6] may be a direct link in the brain between cognitive processes that discover objects and the limbic system (which provide the pleasurable/rewarding feelings [6]
explains why we enjoy the effort, and not just the result (otherwise, we might give up!)
II
grouping principles
discover and dilineate objects --> extract correlations
our vision system correlates similar trees together
like any successful adaptation, there is a reward system for the process and completion of correlating/grouping objects
this is how we are able to see a forest, and ditinguish a bird and a deer from the trees
[6] why we coordinate colors in our clothing or homes
I
PEAK SHIFT EFFECT
[6] artitsts may be unconsciously producting high activity in form areas unconsciously
[6] for example, the excite the visual neurons that represent color memories of flowers MORE than a real flower would
examples:
color
cherub- like paintings of nudes by Boucher
color in the face normally signals health, but this is a "super-stimulus" for health [7]
exaggerated pink, round cheeks create a super healthy glow [6]
form
caricatures
display - and accentuate/exaggerate - essential features that make a certain face (form) unique but discard (downplay) irrelevant (average face) information [6]
Sex (Male/Female)
accentuated hips and bust of a sculpture of the goddess Parvati - not a realistic woman, but takes what makes a woman's form different from a man's and exaggerates that [6]
[6] may be neurons in the brain that fire specifically in response to the image of a female form - the more toward "female" the image along the conuous spectrum between male and female, the stronger the "female!" response
[6] hat the artist tries to do is amplify the effect on the neural system, more so than the actual object would
more powerful version of communication? more impactful?
[6] principle of animal discrimination learning - a rat can be trained to discriminate and respond to a rectangle with an aspect ratio of 3:2, but displays an even greater response to a rectangle with an aspect ratio of 4:1
"super stimulus" helps us understand the provocativeness of art [6]
[1] the brain knows what the signals SHOULD look like, and does a comparison between input and expectation, makes corrections
not likely, due to motivational features and organization [1]
Probably NOT a byproduct, though because
"Appetite for truth" model [1]
survival depends on obtaining accurate information about the world - so any organism with an appetite (thus a reward system) for truth would have increased fitness [1]
The arts are not a byproduct of an attempt to provide truthful info, not even close [1]
so you would THINK that the distinction between truth and lies determines whether info is absorbed or disregarded [1]
we are super interested in FALSE info
but we don't see this: humans would often prefer to read fiction than biographies, and movies than documentaries[1]
it's as if humans can switch off their aversion to false information [1]
Sperber, 1996, Explaining Culture [but from 5] hypothesis: in human evolution, a mental ability arose to deal with complex sounds varying in pitch and rhythm
this mental module evolved to be finer and finer tuned, earlier module still present [5] and is the source of our pleasure associated with music
module no longer has the same function, but now has a cultural application
Sperber: "humans have created a cultural domain for music, whish uses the cognitive module (which was not originally evolved for this purpose)
there was selection pressure to use this ability, as it contributed to better understanding and detection of social signals
these sounds were produced by the human vocal system and used for communication
Steven Pinker suggests that art "picks the locks" of the brain's pleasure circuits [1]
[5] considers music to be technology (i.e., a human capacity developed and exploited for its own sake, and is evolutionarily neutral
[5] does not think that music is an evolutionary adaptation, and that has no biological purpose
features of the visual arts, music, and literature take advantage of design features of the brain which were subject to selection pressure, because they solved other adaptive problems - like understanding language, social interactions, and visuals [1].
music causes pleasure in mental faculties of language, auditory scene analysis, emotional calls, habitat selection, motor control, [5]
SUPPORT FOR
ART AS ADAPTATION
conditions that can be changed to improve fitness are [1] (arts improve fitness through changes to the mind)
3. changes to brain/mind
neurocognitive adaptation operates in two modes [1]
2. ORGANIZATIONAL MODE: construct adaptation, organize it, tune it sothat it behaves correctly[1] Also explained by [4]: evolution produced cognitive adaptations designed to make use of surplus resources in a safe environment in order to train the individual to deal with dangerous, rare, expensive situations they may encounter in the future
[4] natural selection acts on variables that affect the conditions under which a cognitive mechanism can be optimized
this is done when the price of doing these organizing behaviors is not too great[1] - i.e., indiv. is safe and fed, without reproductive opportunities
makes sense that payoff is greater at a young age, when competing opportunities are lower - and we see this, in tht children are immersed (and we are ok with) in fiction for the majority of their childhood
also, since these activities in organizational mode are done when the individual is "at leisure" - this explains why humans today spend such a lot of time involved in arts - we have more leisure time than ever before [4]
POETRY (literature)
sound structure which also preserves the actual words [3]
[3] poetry calls upon the full content of the meaining of a word
possible exercise in language understanding? [3]
readying brain to perform its function as well as possible[1]
calibration of systems [4]
be at optimal readiness to deal with challenges[1]
organizing the brain physicall and informationally[1]
construct itself [1]
[4] some info necessary to self-construct comes from the genes, and some comes from the environment: the minds of others, or the objects they create
each psychological adaptation should come with its own aesthetic to assist the individual in preparing it
this aesthetic motivation is a necesary guidance system to develop an adaptation, appears as as desire to experience aspects of the world[1]
specifically, [1] cites babbling, play chasing, and play fighting (can make parallel to adult engagement in arts)
many non functional behaviors may be driven by adaptations acting in organizational mode [1]
[4] characteristics of behaviors in organizational mode:
3. they do not require that a conscious intention to learn
so the activity will seem purposeless but fun [4]
2. the individual experiences them as "rewarding"
1. take place spontaneously
activities that take place in organizational mode usually require a very high level of skill in functional (executive) mode [4]
to develop/tune/calibrate the neurocognitive system [1]
1. functional mode: performing evolved function (visual system analyzing a scene, language system saying something)[1]
[4] entertainment (including arts) relies on cognitive adaptations for pretend play
[4] natural selection did not act directly to favor pretend play, b/c if an individual failed to engage in it, it wouldn't IMMEDIATELY die
[4] the quality to self-construction derived from the play is what natural selection acts upon
[4] instead, natural selection acted on small differences in predator evasion abilities
what is play? [4] bahvior that develops, practices, or tunes physical, cognitive, or social abilities [Fagen, but from [4]]
[4] it is an adaptive design for exploiting available resources in a safe environment - a low cost training opportunity
[4] chase play evolved as a result of selectiuon pressure to lower the cost of developing predator evasion skills
chase play is a type of pretend play
pretend play = fiction, analagous to plays, movies,
[4] biological function: train predator evasion strategies
this theory is accepted by many theorists: Fagen, Bruner, Vygotsky, and Piaget [4]
[4] enjoyment of play signals that it is a good learning environment
OR, [4] it simply pusheds our pleasure buttons
[4] boredom is a design feature used to motivate the finding/creation of a learning environment
[4] if pretense is designed by natural selection, it is expected that it would have a motivational component [4]
pretense, or creation of a fiction, is used to access spaces of actions
pretense is very similar to human entertainment from books, movies, and music
play enables plentiful resources to be used to prepare for events that are rare and dangerous, or expensive
HYPOTHESES ON THE ADAPTIVE VALUE OF ARTS
Literature
humans have evolved the cognitive machnery necessary to participate in fictions / imagined worlds [1]
pretend play is very similar to adults' involvement in fictional worlds - literature, movies, plays, music [1]
involves mental representation of state of affair that is known to be false[1]
non-instrumental[1]
intrinsically rewarding[1]
PRETENSE COGNITIVE MACHINERY
DECOUPLING [1]
[1] ancestors evolved ability to use information that is only true temporarily, locally, or situationally
how is this evolutionarily stable? How does it improve fitness?
activities which organize an adaptation do not have to be done by encountering the actual thing, or performing the actual task [1]
[1] this requires that the stimulus requirements are met: that there is ABSTRACT ISOMORPHISM between the organizing activity and the functional task
Adaptations of human cognitive machinery necessary for abstract isomorphism [1] :
4. decouple the irrelevant info
3. extract the organizing info
2. guide actions in order to gain from the experience
1. detect activities that are ismorphisms
figuring out characters' motives in a book - reading your boss' intentions
play chasing - running down prey
[1] organizing activities may be dangerous, limited, or not timely
information outside of its particular scope of conditions could be harmful [1]
humans also had to evolve the ability to separate these truth areas and establish, maintain boundaries [1]
this makes fiction - in lit, plays, opera, movies, etc - easier to understand. Fiction is just another scope syntax [1]
[1] one new adaptation is decoupling
resulted in large set of new adaptations: specifically, new information formats - "scope syntax" whish tags and tracks the boundaries within which certain pieces of info can be safely used
[3] another claim that art is a manifestation of a single impulse, be it music, art, poetry
allowed for more variety in fitness-improving behaviors than other species [1]
adaptation whose function is to separate pretend from reality - the fiction from our store of real world knowledge[1]
machinery in brain that makes imagination possible can be selectively impaired while other faculties are still usable - which implies a specialized subsystem, not a byproduct of intelligence in general [1]
implies selection pressure and fitness benefit
literary narrative has a cognitive function [7]
the behaviors of telling and listening to stories may be subject to natural selection [7]
the general theory: traditional stories encourage behaviors that helpedancestors survive in the past
[7] traditional stories instruct moral codes
reciprocal altruism is a common theme of traitional children's stories in ALL cultures[7]
stories encourage altruism by teaching that rewards will com (which is not always the case in real life) [7]
[7] or, stories deomonstrate BIG rewards for small acts of kindness - like a recent pop country song about a man who listens to the life story of an older gentleman in a bar, and a week later the older gentleman dies and leaves his considerable fortune to the patient, kind listener.
consider the fairy tale in which the prince rescues a maiden - this, made out to be heroic and self-sacrificing, undoubtedly results in increased fitness for the male through mating opportunities (although in the story, usually the prince is allowed to marry the maiden, or something similarly G-rated) [7]
[7] teach children how to come out ahead in reciprocal altruist situations, which make up a large part of human social interactions [7]
many children's stories tell how to detect, and appropriately respond to, cheaters
think of the Little Red Hen story, in which the animals don't help the hen, so she doesn't share her bread with them. [7]
instruction through stories helps children learn and be more successful more quickly [7]
Monitoring for cheaters is very important when humans increasingly have one-off interactions with others in the modern world
must be able to spot a cheater and make a decision as to how to respond quickly and with little information to go on
even harder is disguising the discrimination, as this could lead to the focal individual getting a "cheater" status! [7]
example: teaching children to say thank you [7]
traditional storytelling is a kinship strategy and a way for parents to influence their descendants' behavior [7]
[7] example, East Africa, girls are taught through stories the secrets of a successful marriage (i.e., how to handle males)
stories influence ehavior by substituting verbal representaions for potentially costly first hand experience[7]
[7] example: a traditional story in a population of indiginous Malaysian people iinstructed them to move to higher ground when the earth shakes; causing them to avoid the destruction of a tsunami (Moken people)
safely, efficiently acquire knowledge[7]
[7] about the environment, gathering food or hunting, about predators
an adaptive theory explaining human involvement in fiction should[4] :
3.exlain why it has an educational function
2. explain why we get mentally and emotionally involved
1. explain why we experience it as "fun"
[4] humans have a basic cognitive capacity for creating and enjoying fictions
Music and Language
Music is a peak shift in primitive vocalizations [6]
causes an exaggerated emotional response, because the sounds are somewhat instinctual to us [6]
MUSIC AS A PRECURSOR TO LANGUAGE
MUSIC AND LANGUAGE EVOLVED FROM THE SAME BASIC plave [5]
hypothesis: music and language evolved out of a shared "proto-faculty" [5]
[5]some researchers (Levman) see the use of sound for communication by non-human animals to be the same as the human ability for music (hmm, don't agree)
most ethologists disagree: non-human animals do not produce music [5]
[5] Levman thinks music is non-symbolic
musical features of speech: pitch, cadence, timbre
first cited by Spencer
[5] learning to perceive and produce music helps develop infant linguistic abilities
a dual purpose, in addition strengthening mother-infant bonds through affection [5]
musical abilities stem from musical interactions between infant and mother
led to longer periods of infant dependency
[5] longer juvenile period infused with musical experiences pushed music into the adult life as well
longer juvenile period must have allowed early humans more time to learn to navigate social interactions
[5] there is evidence that our ancestors had shorter juvenile periods
[5] became a biologically ritualized behavior
1. changes to external world
these hypotheses focus on music as display, and ignore music as participatory behavior [5]
social environment (behavior of conspecifics) is as important as the physical environment in social species [5]
[5] INTRA-GROUP EFFECTS
[5]group identity is formulated and reinforced, cooperation icreases, social relations eased
Effects on individual fitness
mediates social interactions between idividuals inside the group
[5]benefits the individual fitness
[5] INTER-GROUP EFFECTS
Effects on group fitness
[5]music strengthens or signals the strength of a group (will appear cohesive, styrongly bonded)
[5] benefits the group fitness
[5]less musical grops will appear less strongly bonded, and weaker
[5] a group's unique individual style provides protection against free-riders (cheater) (similar to language)
Effects on idividual fitness
2. changes to body
what effect do cultural adaptations have on the body??
ART
there is little sign of motor or any bodily reactions to great art [3]
MUSIC
[5] eeven passive listening activates brain areas associated with motor planning
[3]changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration
lullabies decrease and marches increase muscular strength (harrer, but in [3])
pulse rate can be varied through dynamic (loudness) changes and rhythm (acceleration and decceleration) [3]
conducting symphony: the highest pulse rates are not during the greatest physical effort, but during the sections the conductor finds the most "moving" [3]
[3] when listening to music, muscle action increases in the legs compared to when at rest with no music to listen to
[3] rhythmic sound is a large part of human life
swing of arms and legs in walking
heartbeat
[5] Darwin thought that music was a functional component of sexual selection processes in that it was used to attract mates
Miller [5] music is a medium that displays creative assets
AGAINST
[5] a trait sexually selected for usually appears in or around sexual maturity, but infants have impressive musical abilities
might expect sexual dimorphism in musical abilities [5] but that's not what we see
musical roles may be sexually differentiated, but musicalityi is equally exhibited in females and males
FOR
furthermore, music is/was used for courtship [5]
[5] Jimi Hendrix: sexual opportunities afforded by rock-star status
ability to follow rules of tonality, rhythm, melody, harmony, and individual cultural variations is analagous to birdsong in that just as a songbird's ability to accurately replicate and perform it's species or region-specific song demonstrates is successful growth and development, musical abilities signify good mental state and vocal abilites (perhaps indicates a good developing/growing up envioronment, thus helthy) [cite lecture or look through an beh paper]
[5] these creative assets assist in maintaining social dominance and
Darwin thought music was a precursor to language [5]
Subtopic
[5] speech is also a part of sexual selection, and oratory has parallels to music in rhythm and pitch
[5] this is why music generates emotion and changes of mind state
MUSIC AS A TYPE OF LANGUAGE [5]
[5] music and language coexist in all societiesand fulfill complementary functions
How music and language are SIMILAR:
complex - complexitiy in music is analagous to phonological grammar [5]
affective powers, regulates moods and emotional states in individuals and groups [5]
affectiv dimensions serves as a group bonding tool [5]
[5] communicative, representational elicit meaning
How music and language DIFFER:
music can entrain [5]
entrainment appears to be unique to humans [5]
[5] continuous correction of errors in tempo and is automatic - no conscious intervention
even just listening relies on entrainment provesses [5]
[5] coordination of participant's behaviors according to musical sounds and actions (i.e., rhythm0
[5] meanings elicited by music are less precise and more susceptible to change according to context
CULTURE
behavior that is culture - production, performance, enjoyment of art, music, literature seems to have no relation to evolutionary fitness[3]
[3] is cultural profduction undirected altruism?
Culture is not separate from human evolution [3]
BASIC FACTS OF CULTURE
intrinsicaly rewarding, with no obvious payoff - "appetite for recreation" [1]
people spend a substantial time and energy engaged in art-related activities [1]
rewarding states of mind are a result of artistic pursuits [1]
implies that the brain is designed - adapted - to reward stimuli associated with artistic actions[1]
art, music, and fiction are universal across all cultures, and specific to our species[1]
the vocal and auditory abilities that enable music today were present in human ancestors 500,000 years ago [5]
[5] earliest musical artefact found in southern Germany and dated to 36,000 BP
[5] the artefact, and others in the area and of the same time, are sophisticated which indicates a great time investment
must have been very important
[5] this date coincides with the arrival of modern humans to Europe
