作者：Lawrence Cozzens, Ph.D. 13 年以前
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Text - Northouse, Peter G (2003), Leadership:Theory and Practice, 3rd or 4th ed., Sage
Available via Amazon 4th ed @ $38 + ship. (paper)
Can see entire book on-line at Amazon.
Not available via Landman Library
http://www.amazon.com/Leadership-Practice-Dr-Peter-Northouse/dp/141294161X/ref=tmm_pap_title_1#_
Autocratic
Democratic
Lasse Faire
Style?
Exploitive authoritative
Benevolent authoritative
Consultative
Participative
Assumptions
People are motivated by reward and punishment.
Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to their manager.
The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.
Dansereau, Graen and Haga (1975), Graen and Cashman (1975)
Description
Leader-Member Exchange Theory, also called LMX or Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory, describes how leaders in groups maintain their position through a series of tacit exchange agreements with their members.
In-group and out-group
In particular, leaders often have a special relationship with an inner circle of trusted lieutenants, assistants and advisors, to whom they give high levels of responsibility, decision influence, and access to resources. This in-group pay for their position. They work harder, are more committed to task objectives, and share more administrative duties. They are also expected to be fully committed and loyal to their leader. The out-group, on the other hand, are given low levels of choice or influence.
This also puts constraints upon the leader. They have to nurture the relationship with their inner circle whilst balancing giving them power with ensuring they do not have enough to strike out on their own.
The LMX process
These relationships, if they are going to happen, start very soon after a person joins the group and follow three stages.
1. Role taking
The member joins the team and the leader assesses their abilities and talents. Based on this, the leader may offer them opportunities to demonstrate their capabilities.
Another key factor in this stage is the discovery by both parties of how the other likes to be respected.
2. Role making
In the second phase, the leader and member take part in an unstructured and informal negotiation whereby a role is created for the member and the often-tacit promise of benefit and power in return for dedication and loyalty takes place.
Trust-building is very important in this stage, and any felt betrayal, especially by the leader, can result in the member being relegated to the out-group.
This negotiation includes relationship factors as well as pure work-related ones, and a member who is similar to the leader in various ways is more likely to succeed. This perhaps explains why mixed gender relationships regularly are less successful than same-gender ones (it also affects the seeking of respect in the first stage). The same effect also applies to cultural and racial differences.
3. Routinization
In this phase, a pattern of ongoing social exchange between the leader and the member becomes established.
Adams (1963), Adams (1965), Homans (1961), Walster, Walster and Berscheid (1978)
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York: Free Press.
Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, (Winter): 19-31.
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row
Assumptions
People will follow a person who inspires them.
A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.
Charm and grace are all that is needed to create followers.
Self-belief is a fundamental need of leaders.
People follow others that they personally admire.
Style
The Charismatic Leader gathers followers through dint of personality and charm, rather than any form of external power or authority.
Changing Minds web
Robert Greenleaf (1977)
Speers (2002)
The leader has responsibility for the followers.
Leaders have a responsibility towards society and those who are disadvantaged.
People who want to help others best do this by leading them.
Style
The servant leader serves others, rather than others serving the leader. Serving others thus comes by helping them to achieve and improve.
There are two criteria of servant leadership:
The people served grow as individuals, becoming 'healthier, wiser, more autonomous and more likely themselves to become servants' (Greenleaf, 1977).
The extent to which the leadership benefits those who are least advantaged in society (or at least does not disadvantage them).
iTunesU - New Directions in Leadership - Understanding the Psychology of Stewardship within Leadership
Morals
Values
Stephen Covey
Put Ethics here?
Values based Leadership - Robert McDonald COO of Proctor & Gamble - iTunesU. 56 min
Kouzes & Posner (2002)
James Kouzes and Barry Posner developed a survey (The Leadership Practices Inventory) that asked people which, of a list of common characteristics of leaders, were, in their experiences of being led by others, the seven top things they look for, admire and would willingly follow. And over twenty years, they managed ask this of seventy five thousand people.
The results of the study showed that people preferred the following characteristics, in order:
Honest
Forward-looking
Competent
Inspiring
Intelligent
Fair-minded
Broad-minded
Supportive
Straightforward
Dependable
Cooperative
Determined
Imaginative
Ambitious
Courageous
Caring
Mature
Loyal
Self-controlled
Independent
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row
Association with a higher moral position is motivating and will result in people following a leader who promotes this.
Working collaboratively is better than working individually.
Description
Burns defined transformational leadership as a process where leaders and followers engage in a mutual process of 'raising one another to higher levels of morality and motivation.'
Transformational leaders raise the bar by appealing to higher ideals and values of followers. In doing so, they may model the values themselves and use charismatic methods to attract people to the values and to the leader.
Burns' view is that transformational leadership is more effective than transactional leadership, where the appeal is to more selfish concerns. An appeal to social values thus encourages people to collaborate, rather than working as individuals (and potentially competitively with one another). He also views transformational leadership as an ongoing process rather than the discrete exchanges of the transactional approach.
Awareness of task importance motivates people.
A focus on the team or organization produces better work.
Description
Bass defined transformational leadership in terms of how the leader affects followers, who are intended to trust, admire and respect the transformational leader.
He identified three ways in which leaders transform followers:
Increasing their awareness of task importance and value.
Getting them to focus first on team or organizational goals, rather than their own interests.
Activating their higher-order needs.
Charisma is seen as necessary, but not sufficient, for example
In Northouse, Peter G. - 5th ed.
Read on-line at Amazon.
Bass, B. M. and Steidlmeier, P. (1998). Ethics, Character and Authentic Transformational Leadership
Bass has recently noted that authentic transformational leadership is grounded in moral foundations that are based on four components:
Idealized influence
Inspirational motivation
Intellectual stimulation
Individualized consideration
...and three moral aspects:
The moral character of the leader.
The ethical values embedded in the leader’s vision, articulation, and program (which followers either embrace or reject).
The morality of the processes of social ethical choice and action that leaders and followers engage in and collectively pursue.
iTunes U video - Leadership academy - related to other styles.
Need material
Northouse, Peter
Chapter 13
iTunesU -New Directtions - Leading to find value in Diversity: Leadership, Diversity benefits and group behavior - 29 min
New Directions in Leadership Research - iTunesU
Leadership as Inspiration - Taking it to the next level: Leadership and Goal raising -
iTunesU - New Directions in Leadership - The effect of leadership on follwers: Self regulatory focus and outcomes 38 min
Yuki (1989)
Subordinate effort: the motivation and actual effort expended.
Subordinate ability and role clarity: followers knowing what to do and how to do it.
Organization of the work: the structure of the work and utilization of resources.
Cooperation and cohesiveness: of the group in working together.
Resources and support: the availability of tools, materials, people, etc.
External coordination: the need to collaborate with other groups.
Maier (1963)
Tannenbaum and Schmidt - 1958
Hersey-Blanchard (1999) - One Minute Manager
now separate - each have same model
Vroom 1964
As we constantly are predicting likely futures, we create expectations about future events. If things seem reasonably likely and attractive, we know how to get there and we believe we can 'make the difference' then this will motivate us to act to make this future come true.
Motivation is thus a combination of:
Valence: The value of the perceived outcome (What's in it for me?)
Instrumentality: The belief that if I complete certain actions then I will achieve the outcome. (Clear path?)
Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the actions. (My capability?)
Of course you can have an unpleasant outcome, in which case the motivation is now one of avoidance.
Expectancy Theory is also called Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory.
House and Mitchell (1974) describe four styles of leadership:
Supportive leadership
Considering the needs of the follower, showing concern for their welfare and creating a friendly working environment. This includes increasing the follower's self-esteem and making the job more interesting. This approach is best when the work is stressful, boring or hazardous.
Directive leadership
Telling followers what needs to be done and giving appropriate guidance along the way. This includes giving them schedules of specific work to be done at specific times. Rewards may also be increased as needed and role ambiguity decreased (by telling them what they should be doing).
This may be used when the task is unstructured and complex and the follower is inexperienced. This increases the follower's sense of security and control and hence is appropriate to the situation.
Participative leadership
Consulting with followers and taking their ideas into account when making decisions and taking particular actions. This approach is best when the followers are expert and their advice is both needed and they expect to be able to give it.
Achievement-oriented leadership
Setting challenging goals, both in work and in self-improvement (and often together). High standards are demonstrated and expected. The leader shows faith in the capabilities of the follower to succeed. This approach is best when the task is complex.
Vroom & Yetton
A motivation theory
Intelligence and experience and other cognitive resources are factors in leadership success.
Cognitive capabilities, although significant are not enough to predict leadership success.
Stress impacts the ability to make decisions.
Description
Cognitive Resource Theory predicts that:
1. A leader's cognitive ability contributes to the performance of the team only when the leader's approach is directive.
When leaders are better at planning and decision-making, in order for their plans and decisions to be implemented, they need to tell people what to do, rather than hope they agree with them.
When they are not better than people in the team, then a non-directive approach is more appropriate, for example where they facilitate an open discussion where the ideas of team can be aired and the best approach identified and implemented.
2. Stress affects the relationship between intelligence and decision quality.
When there is low stress, then intelligence is fully functional and makes an optimal contribution. However, during high stress, a natural intelligence not only makes no difference, but it may also have a negative effect. One reason for this may be that an intelligent person seeks rational solutions, which may not be available (and may be one of the causes of stress). In such situations, a leader who is inexperienced in 'gut feel' decisions is forced to rely on this unfamiliar approach. Another possibility is that the leader retreats within him/herself, to think hard about the problem, leaving the group to their own devices.
3. Experience is positively related to decision quality under high stress.
When there is a high stress situation and intelligence is impaired, experience of the same or similar situations enables the leader to react in appropriate ways without having to think carefully about the situation. Experience of decision-making under stress also will contribute to a better decision than trying to muddle through with brain-power alone.
4. For simple tasks, leader intelligence and experience is irrelevant.
When subordinates are given tasks which do not need direction or support, then it does not matter how good the leader is at making decisions, because they are easy to make, even for subordinates, and hence do not need any further support.
Operant conditioning
Classic conditioning
More a management theory
People
Task
A famous series of studies on leadership were done in Michigan University, starting in the 1950s. They found three critical characteristics of effective leaders.
Actions
Task-oriented behavior
Effective managers studied did not do the same kind work as their subordinates. Their tasks were different, and included planning and scheduling work, coordinating activities and providing necessary resources.
They also spent time guiding subordinates in setting task goals that were both challenging and achievable.
Relationship-oriented behavior
Effective managers not only concentrated on the task, but also on their relationship with their subordinates. They were more considerate, helpful and supportive of subordinates, including helping them with their career and personal problems. They recognized effort with intrinsic as well as extrinsic reward, thanking people for effort.
Overall, the effective preferred a general and hands-off form of supervision rather than close control. They set goals and provided guidelines, but then gave their subordinates plenty of leeway as to how the goals would be achieved.
Participative leadership
Effective leaders use a participative style, managing at the group level as well as individually, for example using team meetings to share ideas and involve the team in group decisions and problem-solving. By their actions, such leaders model good team-oriented behavior.
The role of the manager is more facilitative than directive, guiding the conversation and helping to resolve differences. The manager, however, is responsible for results and is not absolved of responsibility. As such, they may make final decisions that take recommendations from the team into account.
The effect of participative leadership is to build a cohesive team which works together rather than a set of individuals.
A famous series of studies on leadership were done in Ohio State University, starting in the 1950s. They found two critical characteristics either of which could be high or low and were independent of one another.
The research was base on questionnaires to leaders and subordinates. These are known as the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LDBQ) and the Supervisor Behavior Description Questionnaire (SDBQ). By 1962, the LDBQ was on version XII.
Actions
Consideration
Consideration is the degree to which a leader acts in a friendly and supportive manner towards his or her subordinates.
Initiating Structure
This is the degree to which a leader defines and structures his or her role and the roles of the subordinates towards achieving the goals of the group.
Does this course cover the skills
Should they be after each theory? - possibly as application exercise
Just covered as part of overview?
Does Virtual leadership come in here?
Do we cover Team leadership?
Skinner to intro Behaviorial
Still bais for many training programs - DDI, Achieve Global
Also on Changing Minds web.
Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis and Annie McKee, in Primal Leadership, describe six styles of leading that have different effects on the emotions of the target followers.
These are styles, not types. Any leader can use any style, and a good mix that is customised to the situation is generally the most effective approach.
Visionary
Coaching
Affiliative
Democratic
Pace Setting
Commanding
6 Traits
Changing Minds?
Need classic article.
Born vs. made
Northouse, Peter
Chapter 12
Chapter 13 in 5th ed.
Discussion question about glass ceiling
Colin Powell
Des TuTu
Nelson Mandella
Woman released in Miranmar (Burma) (Aung San Suu Kyi)
Jesus
Moses
Mohammed
Budda
Gandi
Alexander the Great
Julius Caesar
Napolean Bonaparte
MartinLuther King
John F Kennedy
Abraham Lincoln
Ulys. S. Grant
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Dwight Eisenhower
Native American - Crazy Horse?
Admiral Nelson
George Patton
Douglas MacArthur
Montgomery
George Swartzkopf
Jack Welsh
Lee Iacocca
John Wooden
Vince Lombardi
Joe Paterno
Coach K (North Carolina)
Joan of Arc
Marie Antoinette?
Scotland?
Margaret Thatcher
Warren Buffet
Many YouTube, iTunes U videos
Continum
Side by side comparison
Manager has subordinates
Leader has follwers
