Two Major Waves of Immigration

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Immigrants Since 1965

Conclusion Foner’s From Ellis Island to JFK makes it clear that while immigrants from both waves sought opportunity, their experiences were shaped by race, policy, and economics in very different ways. Ellis Island immigrants, despite initial discrimination, were eventually absorbed into whiteness and gained access to social mobility, whereas post-1965 immigrants—many from Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia—have continued to face systemic racial barriers that impact their economic progress and social standing. Immigration has always been a defining force in New York, but the path to success has never been equal. Understanding these patterns helps us see that today’s immigration struggles are not new—they are part of a long history of exclusion, adaptation, and resilience.

USA Immigrants 1830 -2024

Research Question How have immigration policies, economic opportunities, and racial dynamics shaped the experiences of Ellis Island-era immigrants compared to post-1965 JFK-era immigrants in New York City?

Second-generation immigrants achieve upward mobility despite challenges

Education & Assimilation

Post-1965: More bilingualism but continued racial and economic barriers

Ellis Island era: Pressure to assimilate, loss of native language

Segregation, xenophobia, and changing perceptions of racial identity

Race, Ethnicity & Discrimination

Post-1965 immigrants (Latinos, Asians, Black Caribbeans) faced ongoing racism

Earlier European immigrants faced discrimination but assimilated

Role of immigrant women in the labor market

Work & Economic Contributions

JFK Era Immigrants: Service industry, STEM, healthcare

Ellis Island Immigrants: Factory work, small businesses

Gentrification and displacement affecting immigrant enclaves

Where they Lived

Ellis Island Immigrants: Lower East Side, Little Italy, Chinatown

JFK Era: More dispersed - Queens, Brooklyn, the Bronx, and suburbs

Who are they & Why they Came

Pull Factors: Job opportunities, family reunification

Push Factors: Political instability, economic hardship

Two Major Waves of Immigration

JFK Era (Post-1965)

Differences in social integration and economic mobility

A shift in policies

(1965 Immigration Act)

More professionals and diverse skill sets

Ellis Island Era (1880s–1920s)

Mostly unskilled laborers