The Role of Subtitled and Captioned Videos in Enhancing Vocabulary Learning in Second Language Learners

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- Experimental research is the dominant approach across most studies, as they investigate cause-and-effect relationships between subtitles and vocabulary learning (Chen, 2024; Teng, 2022; Alhai, 2023). - Survey and descriptive-qualitative research are employed in Lestari & Yosintha (2022), making it different from the other studies, as it focuses more on student perceptions rather than statistical cause-effect relationships. - Applied research is evident in Wijaya & Salainti (2024); Khadawardi (2022) since both studies aim to implement subtitle-based learning techniques in practical classroom settings rather than testing broad theories.

- All studies focus on vocabulary acquisition through subtitled media. - Some studies differentiate between intralingual, interlingual, and keyword subtitles (Chen, 2024 ) - Incidental learning is a key concept in most of the studies showing that exposure to subtitles aids passive vocabulary growth (Chen, 2024 ; Lestari & Yosintha, 2022) ; Teng, 2022 ; Alhai, 2023) -While all studies focus on subtitled media and vocabulary acquisition, some (Chen, 2024; Alhai, 2023) analyse subtitle types, whereas others (Khadawardi, 2022; Teng, 2022) take a broader approach without differentiating between types.

- Small sample sizes limit generalisability in Lestari & Yosintha (2022); Alhai (2023); Wijaya and Salainti (2024); Khadawardi (2022). - No long-term retention tests were conducted in Chen (2024); Lestari & Yosintha (2022); Teng (2022), meaning it's unclear if vocabulary gains last over time. - Control groups were missing in Wijaya & Salainti (2024); Alhai (2023), reducing reliability in measuring subtitle effectiveness. - Most studies focused on one learner group (e.g., intermediate students in Khadawardi (2022); university students in Teng (2022). -The biggest gaps in the research are the lack of long-term retention tests and small sample sizes in some studies, limiting broader applicability.

- Longer studies and delayed post-tests are needed to measure vocabulary retention (Chen, 2024; Teng, 2022). - Using interactive media and apps for vocabulary learning is suggested in Wijaya & Salainti (2024); Khadawardi (2022) to make learning more engaging. - Exploring adaptive/bilingual subtitles for personalized learning experiences is recommended in Chen (2024); Teng (2022); Alhai (2023). - Eye-tracking studies to analyze how students process subtitles while watching videos are suggested in Chen (2024); Teng (2022). - The main recommendations for future research are (1) longer studies with retention tests, (2) exploring adaptive subtitles for personalized learning, and (3) integrating new technologies like eye-tracking to better understand subtitle processing.

- All studies use pre-test/post-test designs, but they differ in their experimental rigor: - Chen (2024), Teng (2022), and Alhai (2023) use full experimental designs, meaning they have both experimental and control groups. - Khadawardi (2022) and Wijaya and Salainti (2024) uses a quasi-experimental approach, which lacks a strict control group. - Lestari & Yosintha (2022) employs a survey and qualitative approach, making it different from the others. -Statistical analyses (ANOVA, MANCOVA) were used in Chen (2024) and Teng (2022) for more robust conclusions. Sample sizes differ: Small sample sizes – Lestari & Yosintha (2022); Alhai (2023) (limiting generalizability). Moderate sample sizes – Khadawardi (2022); Teng (2022). Large sample size – Teng (2022) (providing stronger statistical evidence).

- Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986) is applied in most studies, showing that processing information visually and verbally enhances vocabulary retention (Chen, 2024; Lestari & Yosintha, 2022; Teng, 2022; Alhai, 2023). - Multimedia Learning Theory (Mayer, 2014) is highlighted in studies focusing on video-based instruction and the impact of subtitles (Khadawardi, 2022; Teng, 2022; Alhai, 2023). - Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 2011/2014) is used in Chen (2024); Lestari & Yosintha (2022); Teng (2022) to explain why subtitles reduce cognitive strain and improve learning efficiency. - Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1985) is niquely referenced in Wijaya & Salainti (2024), emphasizing the role of comprehensible input in language acquisition. -Majority of studies (Chen, 2024; Teng, 2022) apply Dual-Coding and Cognitive Load Theory to explain learning effects, while Wijaya & Salainti (2024) take a more traditional linguistic approach with Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

- All studies demonstrate positive effects of subtitles on vocabulary learning, but the degree of effectiveness varies. - Keyword subtitles are the most effective for vocabulary learning (Chen, 2024). - Interlingual subtitles help lower-proficiency learners more than higher-proficiency learners (Alhai, 2023). - Context and visuals aid vocabulary retention, particularly when paired with subtitles (Lestari & Yosintha, 2022; Alhai, 2023). - Motivation and engagement were higher when videos were used, especially in Khadawardi (2022); Teng (2022), where students reported increased enjoyment compared to traditional methods.

The Role of Subtitled and Captioned Videos in Enhancing Vocabulary Learning in Second Language Learners

Alternative Solutions

ARTICLE 6 (Alhai, 2023) - Larger sample size to get more reliable results. - Longer-term studies to check vocabulary retention. - Use different types of subtitles (e.g., bilingual, keyword subtitles). - Introduce adaptive captioning that adjusts difficulty based on learner proficiency. - Compare multiple groups (e.g., one group with captions, one without).

ARTICLE 5 (Teng, 2022) - Conduct long-term studies to check vocabulary retention. - Test different types of captions (e.g., keyword captions, bilingual subtitles). - Include a wider range of participants, such as younger or older learners. - Introduce adaptive captioning, adjusting difficulty based on proficiency levels.

ARTICLE 4 (Lestari & Yosintha, 2022) - Use longer videos to assess long-term effects. - Include more participants for better generalisability. - Reduce subtitle dependence by gradually removing them. - Conduct delayed post-tests to measure vocabulary retention. - Use eye-tracking technology to analyze student focus on subtitles.

ARTICLE 3 (Chen, 2024) - Use longer videos to examine learning effects over time. - Introduce adaptive subtitling based on learner proficiency. - Implement bilingual subtitles since they were highly preferred by learners. - Explore eye-tracking studies to analyze how learners process subtitles.

ARTICLE 2 (Khadawardi, 2022) Use of Interactive Apps: Language-learning apps could supplement video-based learning. Longer Study Duration: Conduct research over months to assess long-term vocabulary retention. Multimodal Learning Approach: Combine subtitles with storytelling, discussions, and practical usage activities. (Firmansyah, 2021)

ARTICLE 1 (Wijaya & Salainti, 2024) Use of Interactive Media: Incorporate apps and games for vocabulary learning. Longer Study Duration: Conduct follow-ups to check long-term vocabulary retention. - Blend subtitles with other teaching strategies, such as active listening and speaking exercises.

Type of educational Research

ARTICLE 6 (Alhai, 2023) Experimental Research: Tested the effect of captions on vocabulary learning.

ARTICLE 5 (Teng, 2022) Experimental Research: Tested cause-and-effect relationships between captioned videos and vocabulary learning.

ARTICLE 4 (Lestari & Yosintha, 2022) Experimental and Descriptive-Qualitative Research: Examines cause-and-effect relationships and describes student experiences.

ARTICLE 3 (Chen, 2024) Experimental Research: Investigates cause-and-effect relationships between subtitles and vocabulary learning.

ARTICLE 2 (Khadawardi, 2022) Applied Research: Aimed at improving L2 vocabulary learning through practical methods. Experimental Research: Compared two teaching methods (subtitled videos vs. traditional learning).

ARTICLE 1 (Wijaya & Salainti, 2024) Applied Research: Focuses on practical applications in language learning. Experimental Research: Measures the impact of subtitles through controlled testing.

Theories Used in the Research Article

ARTICLE 6 (Alhai, 2023) Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986): Learning is more effective when information is presented both visually and verbally. Multimedia Learning Theory (Mayer & Johnson, 2008): Learners retain information better through a mix of words and images. Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1980): Learners need guidance and slightly challenging material to grow.

ARTICLE 5 (Teng, 2022) Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986): Learners process information better when it is presented both visually (captions) and verbally (speech). Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 2011): Captions help reduce cognitive overload by distributing information across different channels. Multimedia Learning Theory (Mayer, 2014): Combining images, text, and sound enhances learning by guiding attention and reducing unnecessary cognitive load.

ARTICLE 4 (Lestari & Yosintha, 2022) Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986): Learning is enhanced when both visual (subtitles) and auditory (speech) information are presented together. Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 2011): Students can only process a limited amount of information at a time. Subtitles can ease the learning load.

ARTICLE 3 (Chen, 2024) Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986): Learning is enhanced when information is presented in both verbal and visual modes. Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 2014): Too much information can overwhelm learners, affecting comprehension.

ARTICLE 2 (Khadawardi, 2022) Nation’s Vocabulary Knowledge Theory (2013): Vocabulary learning requires recognition, meaning comprehension, and appropriate usage. Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2014): Learning is enhanced when information is presented visually and verbally. Dual Coding Theory: Combining images, text, and sound improves vocabulary retention.

ARTICLE 1 (Wijaya & Salainti, 2024) Nation’s Vocabulary Acquisition Theory (2001): Learning words in diverse contexts enhances retention. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1985): Language acquisition improves through exposure to comprehensible input. Four Strands Model (Nation, 2001): Vocabulary learning should involve reading, listening, speaking, and writing.

Research Designs and Approaches

ARTICLE 6 (Alhai, 2023) Experimental: Controlled study comparing different types of subtitles Participants: 10 Swedish high school students (English 5 level). Methodology: Experimental study with a pre-test, video viewing, and post-test. Procedure: -Watched a 15-minute TEDx talk. -First half with captions, second half without captions. -Post-test to assess vocabulary retention. -Questionnaire on students’ experiences.

ARTICLE 5 (Teng, 2022) Experimental: Pre-test/Post-test, statistical analysis using ANOVA/MANCOVA Participants: 82 Chinese-speaking EFL students, aged 18-20. Experimental Group (42 students) watched a captioned video. Control Group (40 students) watched the same video without captions. Material: A 51-minute BBC documentary. Tests: 4 vocabulary aspects, L2 Proficiency Test (CET-4) and Language Aptitude Test (LLAMA)

ARTICLE 4 (Lestari & Yosintha, 2022) Survey & Descriptive-Qualitative Study: Used questionnaires and post-test analysis, no strict control group Participants: 20 English major students (10 control, 10 experimental). Procedure: -Watched a 7-minute 45-second video -Control group: Unsubtitled video. -Experimental group: Subtitled video. Post-tests: Vocabulary recognition, meaning comprehension, and understanding.

ARTICLE 3 (Chen, 2024) Experimental: Pre-test/Post-test with different subtitle conditions, control & experimental groups Participants: Primary, middle, and high school students learning English as a foreign language. Conditions Tested : No subtitles, intralingual, interlingual, and bilingual keyword subtitles. Tests Used: Pre-test, post-test (vocabulary meaning recognition & recall), and questionnaires. Analysis: ANOVA and nonparametric tests to compare learning outcomes.

ARTICLE 2 (Khadawardi, 2022) Quasi-Experimental Design: One-group pretest-posttest study. Comparison of Methods: Animated movie clips with subtitles vs. Traditional text-based learning. Data Collection Methods: -Pretests and posttests for vocabulary knowledge. -Short follow-up tests for retention. -Semi-structured interviews for student feedback. Participants: 35 female students (intermediate English learners).

ARTICLE 1 (Wijaya & Salainti, 2024) Quasi-Experimental Design: Used a pre-test and post-test to measure vocabulary improvement. Purposive Sampling: Selected 8th-grade students from SMPN 2 Airmadidi as participants. Quantitative Analysis: Data analyzed using SPSS software.

Problems/Issues/Gaps that exist in the research study

ARTICLE 6 (Alhai, 2023) Small Sample Size: 10 students - Results cannot be widely generalized. Short video duration (15 minutes): Did not measure long-term effects. No control group: Study only had one group with captions turned on/off. - Students’ prior vocabulary knowledge was not fully considered.

ARTICLE 5 (Teng, 2022) Only short-term effects measured: No follow-up tests for long-term vocabulary retention. - Did not examine different captioning styles (e.g., keyword captions vs. full captions). Small age range: Only university students were tested, limiting generalizability. Vocabulary size not deeply analyzed: The study did not explore if pre-existing vocabulary knowledge affected learning.

ARTICLE 4 (Lestari & Yosintha, 2022) Small Sample Size: 20 students (Limited generalisability.) Short video duration: Unclear if long-term learning is improved. No long-term retention tests: Did not check if vocabulary was retained over time. Students’ prior knowledge not fully considered: Some may already know many words.

ARTICLE 3 (Chen, 2024) - Lack of delayed post-tests to measure long-term retention. - Study focused on only a single viewing session, limiting real-world application. - Primary school learners’ literacy skills may have influenced results. - Bilingual subtitles were not included in the study, despite being the most preferred by learners.

ARTICLE 2 (Khadawardi, 2022) Small Sample Size: Limited to 35 female students, reducing generalizability. Single Proficiency Level: Only focused on intermediate learners. Lack of Skill Expansion: Only examined vocabulary learning, not grammar, writing, or speaking skills.

ARTICLE 1 (Wijaya & Salainti, 2024) Limited Sample Size: Only one class was tested, reducing generalizability. Short Duration: Long-term vocabulary retention was not assessed. Lack of Control Group: No direct comparison with other teaching methods.

Significant Findings or Results

ARTICLE 6 (Alhai, 2023) -Students scored higher in the post-test after watching the video. -More correct answers from the captioned section than the non-captioned section. -Some students found captions distracting, even though they improved learning. -Words in captions were learned better than words without captions.

ARTICLE 5 (Teng, 2022) - Captioned videos improved vocabulary learning significantly compared to non-captioned videos. - Students who watched the captioned video scored higher in all four vocabulary aspects. - Language aptitude influenced vocabulary learning, especially in word recall and recognition. - L2 proficiency level was not a significant predictor of meaning recall or recognition.

ARTICLE 4 (Lestari & Yosintha, 2022) -Subtitles improved vocabulary learning, but the difference was not significant. -Experimental group scored slightly higher than the control group. -Context and visuals helped both groups, explaining the small score gap. -Students who watched the subtitled video understood the content better.

ARTICLE 3 (Chen, 2024) -Subtitles help middle and high school students but not younger learners. -Keyword subtitles were the most effective for vocabulary learning. -Interlingual subtitles benefited high school learners the most. -Intralingual subtitles were the least effective for high school students. -Primary school students did not significantly benefit from subtitles.

ARTICLE 2 (Khadawardi, 2022) - Students scored higher in post-tests with subtitled movies than with traditional learning. - Watching videos increased student participation and interest. - Subtitled videos improved word recognition, comprehension, and recall. - The improvement was statistically significant (p < 0.001).

ARTICLE 1 (Wijaya & Salainti, 2024) - Post-test scores (mean 8.43) were significantly higher than pre-test scores (mean 5.69). - Watching movies with English subtitles helped students remember and use new words. - T-test results confirmed the positive impact of subtitled movies on vocabulary learning.

Key Concepts and Definitions

ARTICLE 6 (Alhai, 2023) Vocabulary Acquisition: Process of learning new words and their meanings. Subtitled Media: Videos with on-screen text aiding comprehension. Captions: Same language as audio (L2 audio + L2 text). Subtitles: Translated text (L2 audio + L1 text). Incidental Learning: Learning vocabulary unconsciously while engaging in other activities.

ARTICLE 5 (Teng, 2022) Incidental Vocabulary Learning: Learning new words unintentionally while engaging in another activity Captioned Videos: Videos with on-screen text that match the spoken dialogue to aid language learning. L2 Proficiency: The level of skill a learner has in their second language (English in this study). Language Aptitude: A learner’s ability to acquire a second language based on cognitive skills.

ARTICLE 4 (Lestari & Yosintha, 2022) EFL: Learning English in a non-native environment. Subtitled Videos: English videos with subtitles that aid vocabulary learning. Vocabulary Learning: Acquiring new words through listening, reading, or watching videos. Incidental Learning: Learning vocabulary unconsciously while engaging in an activity

ARTICLE 3 (Chen, 2024) Intralingual Subtitles: Subtitles in the same language as the spoken dialogue (captions). Interlingual Subtitles: Subtitles translating the spoken language into another language. Bilingual Subtitles: Display both the original and translated text. Keyword Subtitles: Highlight only essential words to aid comprehension.

ARTICLE 2 (Khadawardi, 2022) L2 Vocabulary Acquisition: The process of learning and retaining words in a second language. Subtitled Movies & Multimedia Learning: Using animated movie clips with English subtitles to enhance vocabulary learning. Short-Term & Long-Term Retention: The ability to remember vocabulary immediately after learning (short-term) and after an extended period (long-term).

ARTICLE 1 (Wijaya & Salainti, 2024) Vocabulary Acquisition: Learning new words and their meanings. Subtitled Movies: Films with English subtitles that help learners associate spoken and written words. Language Exposure: The process of encountering a language in various contexts for better retention.